ZnO Nanostructures in Active Antibacterial Food Packaging: Preparation Methods, Antimicrobial Mechanisms, Safety Issues, Future Prospects, and Challenges

Figures & data

Table 1. ZnO nanomaterials of different size and morphology synthesized by various methods

Size and morphology	Fabrication technique	Ref
Porous nanostructures	Pulsed laser deposition	2019^[Citation25]
Nanowires: diameter, 100–250 nm; length, 2–10 μm	Hydrothermal	2019^[Citation26]
N-Ag-TiO2-ZnO nanocages	Polymerization-assisted assembly	2019^[Citation27]
Aligned ZnO nanorods	Hydrothermal	2019^[Citation28]
3D hierarchical micro-flowers made up of nanosheets (diameter ∼2–3 μm)	Wet chemical co-precipitation	2019^[Citation29]
Nanofiber membrane	Electrospinning, hydrothermal synthesis, and dip coating	2019^[Citation30]
Nanocrystals of diameter ∼23 nm	Green synthesis	2019^[Citation31]
ZnO micro/nanostructures with different morphologies	Solvothermal	2019^[Citation32]
Three-dimensional ZnO nanotubes	Atomic layer deposition	2015^[Citation33]
Hierarchical flower-like and 1D tube-like ZnO architectures	Microemulsion-based solvothermal method	2011^[Citation34]
Nanoparticles forming elongated aggregates with chain-like morphology	Anodization followed by thermal annealing	2013^[Citation35]
Hybrid nanostructure based on reduced graphene oxide and ZnO	Magnetron sputtering, anodization, and thermal treatment.	2016^[Citation36]

Table 2. ZnO nanostructure synthesis from various biosources

BioSource	Examples	Morphology	Ref
Plants	Anisochilus carnosus, Plectranthus amboinicus, and Vitexnegundo	Spherical Quasi-spherical Hexagonal Rod-shaped with agglomerates	2015^[Citation37]; 2015^[Citation38]; 2015^[Citation39]
Bacteria	Bacillus licheniformis, Rhodococcus pyridinivorans	Nano flowers (40 nm width, 400 nm height) Spherical NPs (100–130 nm)	2013^[Citation40]; 2012^[Citation41]
Algae	Sargassum muticum, Sargassum myriocystum, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii	Hexagonal wurtzite (30–57 nm) Spherical Radial Triangular Hexagonal Rods (46.6 nm) Nanorod, nanoflower, porous nanosheet (55–80 nm)	2014^[Citation42]; 2013^[Citation43]; 2016^[Citation44]
Fungi	Candida albicans, Aspergillus fumigatus	Quasi-spherical (15–25 nm diameter) Oblate spherical and hexagonal aggregates (1.2–6.8 nm diameter)	2012^[Citation45]
Proteins	Egg albumin	Spherical (10–20 nm)	2015^[Citation46]

Figure 1. Various crystal structures of ZnO.

Figure 2. Different structures of ZnO: (a) flower, (b) rods, (c,d) wires. Images reproduced with permission from reference.^[54].

Figure 3. Schematic diagram showing the mechanism by which ZnO NPs are toxic to bacteria.

Figure 4. Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial membrane characteristics.

Figure 5. Schematic describing the role of ZnO NPs in the generation of ROS.

Table 3. Antimicrobial food packaging

Antimicrobial food packaging	ZnO size and morphology	Concentration of ZnO (%)	Film preparation method	Food product	Ref
Bio-based nanocomposites
Gelatin/ZnO	30 nm	5	Solution casting	Chicken fillet & Cheese	2019^[Citation88]
Gelatin/ZnO	<100 nm, rod-like structure,	2	Solution casting	Shrimps	2018^[Citation89]
Carboxymethyl cellulose/ZnO	25–55 nm nano rod	20	Coating method	Persimmon & tomato	2019^[Citation82]
Carboxymethyl cellulose/okra mucilage/ZnO nanoparticles	-	0.5	Solution casting	Chicken breast meat	2019^[Citation90]
Carboxymethyl cellulose/Chitosan/ZnO		2, 4 and 8	Solution casting	Soft white cheese	2016^[Citation91]
Chitosan-carboxymethylcellulose/ZnO	<25 nm	0.5, 1 and 2	Solution casting	Bread	2017^[Citation92]
Chitosan/cellulose acetate phthalate/ZnO	30 nm	2.5, 5 and 7.5	Solution casting	Black grape	2019^[Citation93]
Polybutylene succinate/ZnO	100 nm	2–10	Blown film extrusion	-	2016^[Citation64]
Poly(lactic acid)/ZnO	-	0.5, 1 and 1.5	Solution casting	Otolithesruber fish	2019^[Citation94]
Gracilariavermiculophylla agar/ZnO	-	1, 3 and 5	Solution casting	Smoked salmon	2018^[Citation95]
Agar/Poly(lactic acid)/ZnO	24.75 ± 0.78 nm hexagonal	2 and 4	Solution casting	Green grape	2019^[Citation96]
Semolina/ZnO/Kaolin	Two-dimensionalrod type ZnO (50–100 nm in diameter and 0.5–2 μm in length	1, 3, and 5	Solution casting	Mozzarella cheese	2018^[Citation97]
Petroleum-based nanocomposite
Low-density polyethylene/ZnO	<10 nm	1, 3 and 5	Extrusion	Strawberries	2015^[Citation83]
Polypropylene/ZnO and Polypropylene/Ag	70 nm	0.5, 1, 3 and 5%	Blown film extrusion	Fresh lemon juice	2017^[Citation84]
Polyurethane/chitosan/ZnO	30 nm	1, 3 and 5	Solution casting	Carrot	2019^[Citation98]

Table 4. Patents on the material structure application of active antimicrobial packaging

Name	Material(s)	Application(s)	Patent number
Zein antimicrobial packaging material coated with nano-zinc oxide and preparation method	Zein as biocompatible and biodegradable polymer containing nano zinc oxide and plasticizer	Antimicrobial active packaging	CN105907105A (2016)
Application of gelatin-ZnO nano composite film	Gelatin film derived from tuna fish containing nano zinc oxide, and vitamin C	Pharmaceuticals, food packaging (the composite film can inhibit the lipid peroxides and pathogenic microorganisms from growth),chemical agent or an anti-oxidation film	CN104829874A (2015)
A kind of flame retardant type antibacterial food packaging material and preparation method thereof	Low-density polyethylene, nanometer zinc oxide, thyme essential oil, calcium carbonate, bamboo carbon powder (heat resistance), boron fiber, silane coupling agent KH792, peanut shell extracts, n-butyl methacrylate.	Instant sterilization of food, resulting in longer shelf life without preservation and freezing	CN106279896A (2016)
Antibacterial fresh-keeping packaging bag special for rice and processing method thereof	Zinc oxide whiskers containing polyethylene or polypropylene material coat on a plastic woven surface.	Fresh-keeping packaging bag particularly for rice and processing thereof	CN101613010A (2008)
Bacteriostatic and fungistatic additive in masterbatch for application in plastics, and method for producing same	Silver nanoparticles and pre-treated zinc oxide mixing in polymeric resin (polypropylene, polyethylene, polystyrene, high-impact polystyrene, polyurethanes, etc)	Susceptible polymeric system against microorganism like food packaging	US20160227785A1 (2013)

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