Significance of Glass Transition Temperature of Food Material in Selecting Drying Condition: An In-Depth Analysis

Figures & data

Figure 1. Glass transition temperature measurement techniques.

Table 1. Comparisons among different measurement techniques of glass transition.

Group	Technique	Observational Properties	Compatible for materials	Ref.
Thermo-mechanical	Thermal Mechanical Compression Test (TMCT)	Linear displacement and strain Force dissipation.	Skim milk powder	^[Citation20]
	Dynamic Mechanical Analyzer (DMA)	Varying stress on dynamic moduli	Ribbon-shaped spaghetti, LaTeX film (Two different styrene/butadiene latices).	^[Citation21,Citation22]
	Thermo-mechanical Analysis (TMA)/Dilatometry (DIL)	Viscoelastic properties (storage/loss moduli).	Skim milk powder, Single-Crystal C6o, POLY-VINYL ACETATE.	^[Citation20,Citation23,Citation24]
	Oscillatory Squeezing Flow (OSF)/Broadband frequency squeezing flow	Stiffness and viscoelastic properties (loss and storage modulus).	Pharmaceutical powders	^[Citation25]
	Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM)/Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)	Relaxation (change in resonance frequency).	Hexadecane, Octadecane, Oligoethylene, Octacaine, Latex films (Two different styrene-butadiene copolymers).	^[Citation22,Citation26]
Spectroscopic	Positron Annihilation Lifetime Spectroscopy (PALS)	Relaxation and lifetime of positron and positronium.	polystyrene (PS), Acrylonitrile butadiene rubber (NBR), polystyrene, and poly (p-methyl styrene).	^[Citation27–30]
	Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)	Molecular mobility Diffusion	Amylopectin, Spray-dried lactose, maltodextrin, atactic polypropylene, and cis-1,4-polyisoprene.	^[Citation27, Citation29, Citation31–33]
	Dielectric Relaxation Spectroscopy (DRS)	Spin-spin and spin-lattice relaxation times	Crystalline Forms of the Drug Substance (SSR), Two potential lyophilized formulations of a chimeric monoclonal antibody, one with sucrose and the other with trehalose as a bulking ingredient,^[Citation34] D-sorbitol (biochemical grade) and Maltitol, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) films, D-Glucose, D-fructose, D-mannose, L-rhamnose monohydrate, D-xylose, D-glucitol, maltose monohydrate, and malt triose	^[Citation34–38]
Thermal	Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)	Heat flow rate Heat capacity	Latex films, Amylopectin, Ribbon shaped spaghetti, apple, strawberry, blackberry, raspberry, peach, polyethylene glycol (PEG), lactose, Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose-HPMC (E4M Prem), ICI poly-ethylene terephthalate (PET), Poly-ethy1ene terephthalate, Poly-methy1 methacrylate (PMMA) and poly-styrene-co-acrylonitrile (SAN), poly-methyl methacrylate and poly-epichlorohydrin.	^[Citation21, Citation31, Citation39–44]
	Thermally Stimulated Depolarization Current (TSDC)	Dynamics and molecular motions/relaxations in semi-crystalline and amorphous polymers as well as pharmaceutical powders.	Drug substance LAB687, purity 99.9% by HPLC and polymer Kollidon 30 powder (polyvinylpyrrolidone PVPK-30), α-D-Glucose, polyacrylate (PAr), Crystalline Forms of the Drug Substance (SSR), Epoxy resin.	^[Citation35, Citation45–48]
Volumetric	Inverse Gas Chromatography (IGC)	Gas retention time and volume	PVC, Styrene-butadiene (% of styrene), PMMA, PNIPAM, PS, Styrene-butadiene, PSNM, PSNMP, PSMAM, PSMMA, PAN, PVC non plasticized, Plasticized, PSMA, PGME, PGME-en, PDDMA, PANSMAMPS, P (MHPMA-co VP), Ardel®D-100, lactose, PMMA and PS beads.	^[Citation3, Citation49–52]

Figure 2. Effect of moisture content on glass transition temperature^[58].

Table 2. Glass transition temperature of fundamental building blocks of plant cell wall.

Components	Tg	Ref.
Cellulose	From 200 to 220°C (No water content) From −60 to −100°C (30% water content)	^[Citation66]
Hemicellulose	40°C	^[Citation67]
Lignin	50 to 100°C	^[Citation67,Citation68]
Pectin	16.8 to−24.6°C	^[Citation69]

Figure 3. Effect of plasticizer on the glass transition temperature^[71].

Table 3. Effect of Molecular Weight on T_g^[25].

Molecular Weight, Mw (g/mol)	Glass Transition Temperature, Tg
1000	38
10000	92
100000	104
1000000	105

Figure 4. (A) Correlation between porosity and Tg in dehydrated plant-base sample,^[84] (b) contribution of porosity on the change of T_g.

Figure 5. Effect of drying temperature and heat transfer rate on T_g during drying.

Figure 6. Different zone of diffusion, function of the temperature (K) and penetrant concentration (kg/m³).

Figure 7. Relation between browning (absorbance at 420 nm) reaction and T-T_g(K)^[14] .

Figure 8. Glass transition and crispness as a function of water content^[142].

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