Developing Functional Foods Using Red Palm Olein: Pilot-Scale Studies

Figures & data

Table 1 Chemical composition of extruded snack samples made with RPOL in two commercial food plants

Sample description	Proteina (N×6.25) (%)	Asha (%)	Fata (%)	β-Caroteneb (mg kg^−1 fat)	Moisture content (%) (as-is-basis)c
Control shorteningd	5.31g	2.93a	37.50c	10.4e	1.4
RPOLd	6.04g	1.70b	35.67c	456.3f	1.6
Control shorteninge	4.67g	2.06a	41.29d	62.8e	1.3
RPOLe	4.88g	2.56a	39.56d	495.9f	1.1

Note: For comparison among the four snack samples, protein, ash, fat, and β-carotene values with same letters in a single column do not differ significantly (P=0.05).

^aOn a dry basis.

^bIn extracted fat.

^cInitial moisture content of corn grits was 12.8%.

^dExtruded snacks made in plant no. 1.

^eExtruded snacks made in plant no. 2.

Table 2 Chemical composition of digestive biscuit samples made with RPS and RPOL in a commercial food plant

Sample description	Proteina (N×6.26) (%)	Asha (%)	Fata (%)	β-Carotene (mg kg^−1 fat)	Moisture content (%) (as-is-basis)
Control shorteningb	6.94a	1.47b	21.92c	12.0d	1.1
RPSc	7.05a	1.49b	22.37c	308.3e	1.1
RPS+RPOL (1:1)d	7.09a	1.51b	21.51c	337.8e	0.8

Note: Initial moisture content of biscuit dough was 20.3%. For comparison among the three digestive biscuit samples, protein, ash, fat, and β-carotene values with same letters in a single column do not differ significantly (P=0.05).

^aOn a dry basis.

^bDigestive biscuits made with control shortening.

^cDigestive biscuits made with RPS.

^dDigestive biscuits made with RPS:RPOL.

Table 3 Proximate analysis and total β-carotene content of pilot-scale trial bread samples

	Proximate composition (on a dry basis)			β-Carotene content (mg kg^−1 fat)
Bread sample	Proteina (%)	Fat (%)	Ash (%)	Time zero	5 d
Whole-wheat bread control	11.12a	4.46bc	2.66ab	56.4ga	37.9rb
Whole-wheat bread with RPS	11.21a	4.86b	2.56abc	136.0ec	123.4pd
Whole-wheat bread with RPS:RPOL	10.97c	6.82a	2.96a	169.3fe	154.7nf
White bread control	10.41b	3.69d	1.49d	42.3hg	30.8th
White bread with RPS	10.45b	4.10c	1.53d	159.3cj	142.5qk
White bread with RPS:RPOL	10.46b	2.97e	1.41d	250.0am	222.4jn
Brown bread control	11.37a	4.32c	1.96cd	53.2gp	38.8rq
Brown bread with RPS	11.14a	4.99b	2.40abc	177.6ds	166.8mt
Brown bread with RPS:RPOL	10.83c	3.71d	2.23bc	188.5bw	181.0ky

Note: RPS, red palm shortening; RPOL, red palm olein. For comparison among the nine bread samples, protein, fat, ash, and β-carotene values with same letters in a single column do not differ significantly. Among the nine bread samples at zero and five days, β-carotene values with different subscripts differ significantly (P=0.05).

^aProtein, N×5.70.

Table 4 Fatty acid composition of fat extracted from extruded snack samples made with RPOL in two commercial plants

		Fatty acid content (wt.% of methyl esters)
Type of fatty acid	Fatty acid	Control snacka	Test snacka	Control snackb	Test snackb
Saturated	C12	0.35	0.51	0.74	0.45
	C14	1.25	1.64	1.43	1.44
	C16	39.95	38.54	39.50	38.47
	C18	4.43	4.48	4.39	4.25
	C20	0.39	0.39	0.38	0.37
Unsaturated	C18:1	42.47	42.29	42.38	42.45
	C18:2	10.89	11.84	10.92	12.22
	C18:3	0.28	0.33	0.28	0.36

^aExtruded snacks made in plant no. 1.

^bExtruded snacks made in plant no. 2.

Table 5 Fatty acid composition of fat extracted from digestive biscuit samples made with RPOL, RPS, and control shortening in plant no. 2

		Fatty acid content (wt.% of methyl esters)
Type of fatty acid	Fatty acid	Control biscuits	RPS digestive biscuits	RPS+RPOL digestive biscuits
Saturated	C12	0.54	0.51	0.56
	C14	2.19	1.71	1.84
	C16	48.84	46.20	43.39
	C18	4.43	4.71	4.49
	C20	0.46	0.36	0.37
Unsaturated	C18:1	33.06	36.16	37.93
	C18:2	9.45	10.01	11.06
	C18:3	0.33	0.37	0.37

Table 6 Fatty acid composition of extracted fat from various optimized bread formulations made on a pilot scale in a commercial bakery

Fatty acids	Control whole-wheat bread	Whole-wheat bread with RPS	Whole-wheat bread with RPS:RPOL	Control white bread	White bread with RPS	White bread with RPS:RPOL	Control brown breada	Brown breada with RPS	Brown breada with RPS:RPOL
C8	0.02	0.02	0.18	0.03	0.03	0.03	0.02	0.12	0.01
C10	0.03	0.02	0.04	0.03	0.03	0.03	0.02	0.03	0.03
C12	0.20	0.21	0.21	0.18	0.20	0.25	0.17	0.23	0.27
C14	0.95	0.85	0.82	0.85	0.87	0.90	0.80	0.94	0.96
C15	0.08	0.06	0.07	0.07	0.31	0.06	0.03	0.07	0.05
C16	41.22	38.50	34.63	39.25	39.80	37.17	38.47	38.45	37.50
C16:1	0.20	0.19	0.18	0.19	0.17	0.21	0.23	0.23	0.22
C17	0.12	0.12	0.13	0.12	0.12	0.12	0.12	0.11	0.10
C18	4.40	4.35	5.65	5.30	4.90	4.30	4.40	4.17	4.10
C18:1	31.02	33.45	39.10	33.85	36.73	32.92	31.25	33.88	41.50
C18:2	19.94	20.50	17.55	18.65	15.65	22.47	22.57	20.20	17.00
C20	0.35	0.37	0.39	0.36	0.40	0.34	0.33	0.34	0.35
C18:3	0.31	0.38	0.34	0.51	0.62	1.10	1.15	1.50	1.10
C20:1	1.17	1.12	0.93	0.64	0.45	0.79	0.48	0.49	—

Note: Amounts are given as wt.% methyl esters. RPS, red palm shortening; RPOL, red palm olein.

^aBrown bread was made with white flour and 20% fine bran.

Table 7 Effect of RPOL and RPS on the CIE L* a* b* values and the color attributes of extruded snacks prepared on a pilot scale

Sample description	L*	a*	b*	Whiteness value	RI	SI
Plant no. 1
Control snacks	57.9a±2.8	9.3c±1.4	35.2e±1.8	44.34	0.26	36.40
Test snacks	49.5b±4.9	8.9c±1.3	62.1f±3.8	19.46	0.14	62.73
Plant no. 2
Control snacks	56.7a±5.7	10.8d±1.4	41.2g±2.8	39.26	0.26	42.59
Test snacks	47.8b±3.6	11.4d±1.2	56.6k±3.5	22.16	0.20	57.74

Note: L* is a measure of lightness and varies from 0 (black) to 100 (white); the a* value varies from −100 (green) to +100 (red); and the b* value varies from −100 (blue) to +100 (yellow). As the values of a* and b* rise, the color becomes more saturated or chromatic, but these values approach zero for neutral colors (white, gray or black). Whiteness 100−[(100−L*)²+ a*²+b*²]^1/2 is a measure of lightness. Redness Index (RI)—index of apparent change in redness=a*/b* ratio, Saturation Index (SI) or chroma=(a*²+b*²)^1/2. Mean values in a column with different letters differ significantly (P=0.05).

Table 8 Effect of RPOL and RPS on the CIE L* a* b* values and the color attributes of digestive biscuits prepared on a pilot scale

Sample description	L*	a*	b*	Whiteness value	RI	SI
Plant no. 2
Control biscuits	74.9a±0.6	12.3d±0.6	38.8g±0.5	54.60	0.32	40.70
Test biscuits with RPS	73.6b±1.5	15.9e±0.8	68.5j±0.9	24.89	0.23	70.32
Test biscuits with RPS:RPOL	66.3c±2.8	19.0f±0.4	62.9k±1.5	20.11	0.27	72.44

Note: L* is a measure of lightness and varies from 0 (black) to 100 (white); the a* value varies from −100 (green) to +100 (red); and the b* value varies from −100 (blue) to +100 (yellow). As the values of a* and b* rise, the color becomes more saturated or chromatic, but these values approach zero for neutral colors (white, gray or black). Whiteness 100−[(100−L*)²+a*²+b*²]^1/2is a measure of lightness. Redness Index (RI)—index of apparent change in redness=a*/b* ratio, Saturation Index (SI) or chroma=(a*²+b*²)^1/2. Mean values in a column with different letters differ significantly (P=0.05).