Developing Functional Foods Using Red Palm Olein: Objective Color and Instrumental Texture

Figures & data

Table 1 Compression force of whole-wheat bread, white bread, and brown bread samples with different levels of RPS or RPOL

	Compression force (N)
	Whole-wheat bread		White bread		Brown bread
Replacement level (%)	RPS	RPOL	RPS	RPOL	RPS	RPOL
0 (control)	6.9d ^bc	8.3g ^e	3.7m ^h	3.3n ^j	4.2s ^p	4.8t ^q
25	6.4d ^c	6.2g ^e	3.3m ^h	4.1n ^j	ND	ND
50	6.1d ^c	7.4g ^e	4.0m ^h	3.7n ^j	ND	ND
75	7.5d ^ab	8.3g ^e	3.7m ^h	4.3n ^j	ND	ND
100	8.3d ^ab	15.2g ^f	3.9m ^h	7.5n ^k	4.6s ^p	11.7t ^r

Note: Means values with different superscripts differ significantly (P=0.05) in a column for increasing replacement levels of RPS or RPOL for a type of bread. For judging significance (P=0.05) between RPS and RPOL in any type of bread, subscripts should be compared. ND, not determined.

Figure 1. A typical force-time graph of compression force for whole wheat flour bread.

Table 2 Compression force of whole-wheat bread containing different combinations of RPS and RPOL, with and without DATEM emulsifier

	Compression force (N)
RPS:RPOL ratio	Without DATEM	With DATEM
100% wesson (control)	6.8g ^a	6.2g ^d
0:100	19.2h ^b	14.1j ^e
25:75	11.0c ^k	10.6k ^f
50:50	12.0m ^c	6.1n ^d
75:25	8.3p ^a	6.5q ^d
100:0	7.5r ^a	6.1s ^d

Note: Means values with different superscripts differ significantly (P=0.05) in a column for changing replacement levels of RPS with RPOL for bread without or with DATEM. For judging significance between without DATEM and with DATEM bread in any row, subscripts should be compared (P=0.05).

Table 3 Compression force of optimized bread samples containing DATEM emulsifier

	Compression force (N)
Replacement level (%)	Whole-wheat bread	White bread	Brown bread
0 (control)	5.9h ^a	3.9j ^d	5.2h ^e
100% RPS	6.9k ^b	4.3m ^d	6.9k ^f
50:50 (RPS:RPOL)	8.1p ^c	4.4q ^d	8.0p ^g

Note: Means values with different superscripts differ significantly (P=0.05) in a column for changing replacement levels of RPS and RPOL for three types of optimized bread samples containing DATEM. For judging significance between three different bread samples in any row, subscripts should be compared (P=0.05).

Table 4 CIE L* a* b* values for crumb color of whole-wheat bread samples containing different levels of RPS and RPOL

	RPS (mean±SD)			RPOL (mean±SD)
Replacement level (%)	L*	a*	b*	L*	a*	b*
0 (control)	62.5±2.7	3.6±0.1	19.5±0.4	62.6±2.5	4.0±0.8	19.9±1.0
25	60.0±0.6	3.8±0.0	22.7±0.3	62.6±0.1	4.0±0.7	24.1±0.6
50	61.1±0.1	3.7±0.1	25.4±0.1	62.4±2.0	4.6±0.8	27.9±0.6
75	60.1±1.1	3.6±0.1	26.9±0.4	62.4±0.8	5.0±1.1	31.1±1.5
100	60.5±1.5	3.7±0.3	29.0±0.4	57.7±0.5	6.3±1.1	35.5±0.6

Note: SD, standard deviation.

Table 5 CIE L* a* b* values for crumb color of white bread samples containing different levels of RPS and RPOL

	RPS (mean±SD)			RPOL (mean±SD)
Replacement level (%)	L*	a*	b*	L*	a*	b*
0 (control)	69.6±2.1	−0.7±0.4	11.9±1.0	72.1±0.8	−0.5±0.1	12.4±0.3
25	70.1±2.5	−1.0±0.2	17.8±0.1	71.2±0.2	−0.5±0.0	21.4±0.1
50	68.2±4.2	−0.9±0.3	23.2±0.6	69.7±1.1	−0.2±0.1	27.1±0.0
75	68.2±6.2	−0.9±0.1	26.3±0.4	70.8±0.7	0.2±0.2	32.3±1.3
100	66.2±3.0	−0.9±0.3	29.3±0.6	63.2±0.8	1.4±0.4	38.6±1.0

Note: SD, standard deviation.

Table 6 CIE L* a* b* values for crumb color of brown bread samples with 20% bran containing 100% RPS and RPOL

	RPS (mean±SD)
Replacement level (%)	L*	a*	b*
0 (control whole-wheat bread)	63.4±0.8	3.7±0.3	19.7±0.7
0 (control white bread)	71.0±1.0	−0.6±0.1	12.1±0.7
0 (control brown bread, i.e., white flour +20% bran)	65.6±1.1	3.5±0.6	19.3±0.9
100% RPS brown bread	63.8±1.6	3.4±0.3	29.3±1.2
100% RPOL brown bread	57.7±1.5	5.3±0.5	34.6±0.7

Note: SD, standard deviation.

Table 7 CIE L* a* b* values for crumb color of whole-wheat bread samples containing different combinations of RPS, RPOL, and DATEM

	Without DATEM (mean±SD)			With DATEM (mean±SD)
RPS:RPOL ratio	L*	a*	b*	L*	a*	b*
0:0 (control)	59.5±1.5	3.5±0.3	18.8±0.4	60.8±0.3	3.4±0.1	18.9±0.1
0:100	55.1±0.9	5.6±0.6	34.6±1.6	57.9±0.6	5.5±0.1	34.5±0.1
25:72	57.1±1.5	4.7±0.4	32.7±0.4	58.9±1.1	4.4±0.4	32.7±0.7
50:50	58.5±2.1	4.5±0.5	32.7±0.3	58.6±0.4	3.7±0.1	31.2±0.1
75:25	58.2±2.6	4.0±0.3	29.4±2.3	59.5±0.7	3.7±0.1	30.3±0.1
100:0	57.5±0.3	3.6±0.3	29.2±0.8	60.4±0.1	3.3±0.0	29.4±0.1

Note: SD, standard deviation.

Table 8 CIE L* a* b* values for crumb color of optimized bread samples containing DATEM emulsifier

	Whole-wheat bread (mean±SD)			White bread (mean±SD)			Brown bread (mean±SD)
RPS:RPOL ratio	L*	a*	b*	L*	a*	b*	L*	a*	b*
0:0 (control)	61.2±0.6	3.8±0.0	19.8±0.1	66.6±0.1	−1.0±0.1	12.0±0.2	ND	ND	ND
0:100	60.6±0.8	3.5±0.3	29.5±0.5	67.5±0.3	−1.5±0.4	29.5±0.4	60.2±0.2	3.0±0.3	28.6±0.6
50:50	59.7±1.1	4.6±0.4	32.7±0.4	65.9±1.0	−1.0±0.1	31.7±0.6	59.7±1.8	3.4±0.4	30.8±0.6

Note: SD, standard deviation; ND, not determined.