Coeditors’ Introduction: Essential Elements of Comprehensive Literacy Frameworks for Emergent Bilinguals

A fundamental goal of literacy instruction is that all students demonstrate listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills at grade level. Achieving this goal for Emergent Bilinguals (also referred to as English Language Learners and English Learners) requires that instruction (Hamayan, Genesee, & Cloud, 2013; Beeman & Urow, 2013):

• Integrate the four language domains, both in the language arts and across content areas;

• Develop students’ oral language skills;

• Provide explicit instruction on the “5 big ideas” in reading: phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, comprehension and fluency;

• Be differentiated, consistent with students’ current performance levels in their native languages and in English;

• Allow for interaction and collaboration;

• Incorporate research-based instructional strategies that have been validated with Emergent Bilinguals; and

• Be culturally and linguistically responsive.

Literacy frameworks adopted by schools and districts must guide the implementation of these principles in the diverse programs in which Emergent Bilinguals are served (e.g., dual language, transitional, immersion, and English as a second language models). They must also align literacy performance standards within and across grades.

The two books reviewed in Volume 38, Issue 3 of the Bilingual Research Journal, Biliteracy from the Start: Literacy Squared in Action and The Bilingual Advantage: Promoting Academic Development, Biliteracy, and Native Language in the Classroom, provide excellent guidance for literacy program development and implementation. Both books offer many ways to ensure that English Learners become effective readers and writers. The research articles included in this volume contribute to the body of research that supports the principles of effective literacy instruction for Emergent Bilinguals delineated above and advances our understanding of the nuances involved in serving a diverse population of second language learners. In addition, though, the articles call attention to factors that must be addressed to ensure the academic success of these students. These factors include student motivation, technology, family literacy practices, and teacher professional development.

STUDENT MOTIVATION

Engagement in literacy activities is enhanced when students understand the language of instruction and when tasks allow them to tap into their background experiences and funds of knowledge, involve topics of personal interest to them, and allow them to discuss the texts they are reading or writing with teachers and peers (Guthrie & Knowles, 2001). These strategies help students to develop intrinsic motivation and increase their willingness to read and write, simply because literacy activities are interesting, enjoyable, and serve real-life purposes. Intrinsic motivation is crucial because meeting academic and accountability standards requires that students be able to read independently, read fluently and gain meaning from text, and express their own ideas articulately.

TECHNOLOGY AND DIGITAL MEDIA

Literacy proficiency involves more than reading or producing text in print. It also includes the ability to use, manage, access, and evaluate technology and digital media in order to function effectively in a global economy (International Technology and Engineering Educators Association, 2007). The National Council of Teachers of English and the International Reading Association have suggested that visual media is extremely important in 21st century literacy acquisition . They promote the importance of the four traditional language arts (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) and consider viewing and visual representation as critical components to becoming proficient in a computer- and technology-linked world. This suggests that teachers must have the skills to use and incorporate technology into the literacy curriculum and instruction (Gregory & Burkman, 2012). Students who use technology are more engaged with school tasks and homework, spend more time involved in collaborative work, produce writing of higher quality and greater length, and develop better research analysis skills (Spires, Lee, Turner, & Johnson, 2008). Thus, incorporating technology into education programs for Emergent Bilinguals contributes significantly to student motivation, engagement and academic competence.

FAMILY LITERACY PRACTICES

Family engagement in children’s schooling is also correlated with academic achievement Although teachers recognize this, their attempts to engage parents in literacy activities are often unsuccessful because these attempts are at odds with home literacy practices. For example, too often, parents are led to believe that speaking a language other than English at home is detrimental to their children’s academic success and that they should, instead, speak English to avoid confusing their children. This perception is reinforced when parents are asked to help children with literacy activities and homework in English, even though teachers know parents have limited English proficiency. To facilitate school-family literacy partnerships, teachers should stress to parents that supporting their children’s native language development provides the foundation for school success, regardless of whether students are receiving native language or English-only instruction . However, families must understand that in addition to helping their children develop oral language proficiency in their native language, they also have to explicitly support literacy acquisition (Kang, 2015). They are more likely to do so if the types of activities teachers ask them to do at home tap into parents’ background knowledge and experiences and are consistent with literacy practices that are already part of family routines (Ortiz & Ordoñez-Jasis, 2005). These routines include, for example, daily interactions with environmental print, storytelling, reading to their children or listening to them read, and talking about books and other print materials found in the home.

TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Ensuring that Emergent Bilinguals meet high academic standards requires they have access to highly qualified teachers. Yet, Franco-Fuenmayor, Padrón, and Waxman (2015) found that bilingual education and English as a second language teachers did not have sufficient access to professional development focused specifically on meeting the needs of Emergent Bilinguals. Only 10% of the teachers in their sample participated in professional development offerings specific to literacy instruction for Emergent Bilinguals and only 5% of the teachers reported receiving training on differentiation of instruction to address the diverse languages, backgrounds, and social and academic needs of their students. And, although sheltered instruction is an essential element of bilingual education and ESL programs, only 3% of teachers received professional development on this topic.

Although the essential elements of effective programs and services for Emergent Bilinguals are well documented, the goal of ensuring that all students meet grade level language and literacy standards continues to elude us. The articles in Volume 38, Issue 3 of the Bilingual Research Journal suggest that a major obstacle is a lack of, or inconsistent, fidelity of implementation of research-based instructional practices and the shortage of qualified education professionals to address the multiple, complex needs of these students. These issues cannot be resolved without strong administrative leaders who have the knowledge, skills and commitment to ensure that instructional programs lead to the social and academic success to which Emergent Bilinguals have a right. The articles and book reviews in this issue of the Bilingual Research Journal help to address this need by providing important guidance for administrators charged with overseeing programs and services for Emergent Bilinguals and for teachers charged with teaching literacy in the native language and in English.

In The Case of Chichewa and English in Malawi: The Impact of First Language Reading and Writing on Learning English as a Second Language, Jaran Shin, Misty Sailors, Nicola McClung, P. David Pearson, James Hoffman, and Margaret Chilimanjira investigated the relationship between Chichewa (L1) and English (L2) literacies in Malawi, a country in southeastern Africa. Using hierarchical linear modeling, they found that the pattern and strength of cross-language literacy transfer between Chichewa and English varied depending on literacy domain (i.e., reading or writing) and grade level. The authors discuss implications for students, teachers, and policy-makers in countries like Malawi, where the language of the former colonial power is the official language (L2) of the country and students must be prepared to participate within a globalized society. The study findings run counter to this policy, reinforcing the importance of ensuring that policy-makers, like educators, understand that promoting native language literacy has positive effects on the development of English literacy skills and maximizes the academic success of learners in both languages.

Korean Families in America: Their Family Language Policies and Home-Language Maintenance presents the findings of a study conducted by Hyun-Sook Kang investigating the family language policies of Korean-American parents. The article reports on how demographic variables, family language practice (FLP), language management (i.e., specific efforts to modify language practice), and ideology predict maintenance of the home language. Results of this large-scale survey (N = 480) revealed that child gender and age of first exposure to English and parental attitudes toward early childhood bilingualism and language management (e.g., reading to their children or having children read in Korean) were strong predictors of children’s literacy skills in the home language. On the other hand, oral skills were predicted by length of settlement and language practice patterns in the home. Kang concludes that, without specific language management strategies, children are more likely to acquire Korean oral skills but limited reading skills in their home language.

Mark Pacheco and Blaine Smith sought to understand how bilingual adolescent students leverage multiple languages and modes in digital composition. In Across Languages, Modes, and Identities: Bilingual Adolescents’ Multimodal Codemeshing in the Literacy Classroom, they report on the distinct communicative affordances associated with four students’ multimodal codemeshing practices. Their analysis of students’ digital products and retrospective design interviews revealed that students meshed linguistic and modal resources to convey multidimensional and nuanced meanings and to (re)voice their subjects’ experiences. Students were able to draw upon their own funds of knowledge, experiences, linguistic resources (native language, English, translanguaging), and personal identities as they developed and communicated messages to diverse audiences. This included, for example, drafting text in their heritage language before drafting it in English. The authors conclude that supporting translanguaging practices is both desirable and necessary in promoting written language communication and that successful multimodal codemeshing is a type of student achievement, in and of itself.

The article, Exploring Associations Among Writing Self-Perceptions, Writing Abilities, and Native Language of English-Spanish Two-Way Immersion Students, explores the writing self-perceptions of 409 fourth grade native English and native Spanish speakers and reports the relationship between self-perceptions and writing performance. An adapted version of the Writers Self-Perception Scale was administered along with a writing task. Native English speakers reported higher English writing self-perceptions than native Spanish speakers. However native Spanish speakers did not report consistently higher Spanish writing self-perceptions than native English speakers. Regression analyses demonstrated positive associations between self-perceptions and performance in both languages. These results support the value of capturing students’ writing self-perceptions in two languages. The authors call for research to identify more robust measures of bilingual self-perceptions that adequately capture the multifaceted relationships between self-perception and writing performance in L1 and L2.

Susana Franco-Fuenmayor, Yolanda Padrón, and Hersh Waxman examined teachers’ knowledge of instructional practices for English Language Learners (ELLs), research on bilingual programs, research-based instructional strategies, and knowledge related to second language development amongst 225 bilingual/English as Second Language (ESL) teachers in a large suburban school district in Texas . Additionally, they explored the professional development opportunities provided teachers of ELLs. Findings reported in Investigating Bilingual/ESL Teachers’ Knowledge and Professional Development Opportunities in a Large Suburban School District in Texas indicated that many teachers of ELLs are not receiving adequate training, particularly on topics specific to bilingual education and second language development. Bilingual education teachers were more knowledgeable than ESL teachers in these areas, but most teachers they would benefit from training to ensure they provide effective instruction for ELLs.

The practitioner-oriented texts reviewed in this final issue of the Bilingual Research Journal in 2015 are excellent resources for teachers and others seeking to improve instruction for Emergent Bilinguals. Jenn Raskauskas, Amber Behrends, and Idalia Nuñez review The Bilingual Advantage: Promoting Academic Development, Biliteracy, and Native Language in the Classroom, written by D. Rodríquez, A. Carrasquillo, and K. Soon Lee. The authors of this text develop the theme of bilingualism as an advantage in the categories of employment, economy, information technology, and cross-cultural communication. They build the case for using the native language as a foundation for English language learning. The second theme focuses on language use in educational settings and instructional practices for oral language and literacy development that promote native language skills and bridge these skills to English literacy. Of particular importance are discussions of how to link instruction to Common Core Standards specific to English Learners and the application of technology in native language instruction. The reviewers conclude that educators who read this book will better understand why it is important to allow students to use their native language in the classroom and will also have a repertoire of strategies to apply in their own classrooms.

Allison Briceño reviews Biliteracy from the Start: Literacy Squared in Action, authored by K. Escamilla, S. Hopewell, S. Butvilofsky, W. Sparrow, W., L. Soltero-González, O. Ruiz-Figueroa, and M. Escamilla. This book provides an excellent framework for biliteracy instruction for students in kindergarten through fifth grade. Unlike programs that teach literacy in the native language before transitioning students to English reading, the Literacy Squared Model pairs literacy instruction in both languages beginning in kindergarten or before. The framework stresses the importance of oral language development and the use of instructional strategies that help students make cross-language connections. Moreover, students’ language and literacy trajectories, in the native language and in English, are tracked and assessment results are used to guide instructional decisions. The book provides teachers valuable tools for assessment and instruction in programs that have biliteracy as a goal.

Together the research articles and the book reviews included in Volume 38, Issue 3 of the Bilingual Research Journal provide a rich compendium of comprehensive language and literacy frameworks for Emergent Bilingual students that can assist educators, teacher educators, and parents in developing deep engagement in literacy practices both in classrooms and in homes. The reader will notice that the role of technology in bilingual literacy investment is ever growing and research in this area is increasingly receiving well-deserved attention.

Alba A. Ortiz

University of Texas at Austin

María E. Fránquiz

University of Utah at Salt Lake City