https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6112-5075
ABSTRACT
In this study, avocado pulp and oil were added to mayonnaise type-dressing to produce a healthy and microbiologically safe product with improved sensory properties. First, oil avocado was obtained by solvent-free ultrasonic-assisted extraction and centrifugation. The mayonnaise type-dressing was formulated with avocado pulp and oil and then treated with ultrasound. Chemical and sensory qualities were determined in the oil. Microbiological quality, color and sensory analysis were carried out in the mayonnaise type-dressing along a storage period under refrigeration. The avocado oil yield was 64% with an outstanding emerald green color. The avocado oil quality agreed with Mexican Official Standards. Oleic, palmitic, palmitoleic and linoleic acids were found to be the major fatty acids in avocado oil. The mayonnaise-type dressing showed a reduction of the microbial load without the need for thermal pasteurization, and the green color was stable during storage. Color, odor and flavor were sensorially evaluated as “like much.”
RESUMEN
En el presente estudio, la pulpa y aceite de aguacate se usaron para elaborar un aderezo tipo mayonesa, resultando en un producto saludable y microbiológicamente seguro con propiedades sensoriales mejoradas. El aceite de aguacate se obtuvo mediante extracción asistida por ultrasonido y centrifugación sin solventes. El aderezo tipo mayonesa se formuló con pulpa y aceite de aguacate, y fue tratado con ultrasonido. En el aceite se determinó la calidad química y sensorial. Se encontró que los ácidos oleico, palmítico, palmitoleico y linoleico son los principales ácidos grasos del aceite de aguacate. La calidad microbiológica, sensorial y el color se evaluaron en el aderezo tipo mayonesa durante el almacenamiento en refrigeración. El rendimiento de aceite de aguacate fue del 64% y posee un color verde esmeralda. La calidad del aceite de aguacate coincidió con la normatividad mexicana. El aderezo tipo mayonesa mostró una reducción de la carga microbiana sin necesidad de pasteurización, así como el color verde del aderezo tipo mayonesa fue estable durante el almacenamiento. El color, olor y sabor fueron evaluados sensorialmente como “me gusta mucho.”
1. Introduction
Nowadays, there is a growing interest in food products developed from avocado (Restrepo et al., Citation2012). One of the potential commercial products is mayonnaise type-dressing, where avocado pulp provides vitamins A, C, E, B1, B2 and B6, as well as minerals like potassium, magnesium, phosphorus and calcium, together with monounsaturated fatty acids. Avocado oil is also rich in oleic acid, antioxidants, and phytosterols (Flores et al., Citation2019). Among the biological properties of avocado, a reduction of total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and plasma triglycerides has been reported by other authors (Carvajal-Zarrabal et al., Citation2014). In addition, a recent report showed that consumption of avocado pulp improved cardiovascular and autonomic recovery after exercise in humans (Sousa et al., Citation2020). Given the above, in this research avocado pulp and oil were considered as bioactive ingredients for the development of a new mayonnaise type-dressing.
An important consideration in product development is formulation. According to the Official Mexican Standard NMX-F-341-S-1979 a mayonnaise type-dressing is defined as a food product used to flavor other foods and should not contain less than 50% of mayonnaise or the corresponding amount of edible vegetable oils and egg yolk in any form and may contain other ingredients and food additives Mexican Norm (NMX), Citation1979). The vegetable oil content should not be less than 33% of the total weight, and egg content should not be less than 4%. Additional flavor will be given by vinegar, sugar, salt, and spices. All of the above was considered in the development of the product described in the present study (Moustafa, Citation1995).
It is known that avocado-based products represent several technological challenges, such as enzymatic browning, lipid oxidation and pigment degradation, which influence the resulting color and flavor. Traditional thermal treatments are widely used in the food industry because they guarantee safe products (Pasha et al., Citation2014); however, when processing avocados they may oxidize lipids and affect the color. Therefore, alternative processing techniques, such as microwaves, high pressure, and pulsed light, combined with food additives have been used to preserve the quality of avocado products (Aguiló-Aguayo et al., Citation2014; Guzmán et al., Citation2002; López-Malo et al., Citation1998).
The food industry has explored the application of alternative technologies to preserve the nutritional and sensory qualities, as well as, the microbial stability of avocado products (FAO; Citation2004). Ultrasound is a low cost, non-conventional technology that is also environmentally friendly (Gallo et al., Citation2018), since it requires less energy to process products such as mayonnaise and dressings, where cavitation produced by acoustic waves generates the emulsion (Chemat et al., Citation2011).
Other reports point out that ultrasound represents an alternative green technology in the extraction of avocado oil, where the mechanical effects of ultrasound create a greater disruption of the fruit cellular structure, enhancing oil extraction (Clodoveo et al., Citation2013; Sicaire et al., Citation2016).
Given the above, in the present study we explored the potential application of ultrasound in the processing of avocados. The aim of the present work was to evaluate the physicochemical properties and microbiological quality of a mayonnaise type-dressing containing pulp and avocado oil processed with ultrasound.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Samples
Avocados (Hass variety) with 16% ethereal extract were purchased at a local market in Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico. Fruits were selected according to size, uniformity of color, with a good general appearance and no physical defects. The rest of the ingredients used in the formulation were bought at a local market in Xalapa city.
2.2. Extraction of avocado oil
The conditions for avocado oil extraction with ultrasound were established in the first part of the present work. For this purpose, 80 g of avocado mash was placed into a 100 mL glass beaker, then the ultrasound probe (13 mm) was submerged to a depth of 25 mm into the mash, and the ultrasound processing was carried out at a frequency of 20 kHz and 750 W (Ultrasonic processors with temperature controller, Cole-Palmer Instrumental Company, VCX-750, USA 80%, 30 min). The sample temperature was controlled at 40°C. Afterwards, the processed mash was centrifuged at 8228 g for 20 and 40 min at 40°C. The oil was collected and 0.03% of vitamin E was added as antioxidant, in accordance with Mexican Official Standards.
2.3. Mayonnaise type-dressing preparation
The mayonnaise type-dressing containing ground avocado pulp (29%) and oil (36.9%) was prepared with salt (1.45%), sugar (2.9%), lemon juice (9%), vinegar (0.74%), mustard (1.16%), whole egg (17.4%), xanthan gum (0.35%), vitamin E (0.02%) and spices (1.08%). The ingredients were mixed using an ultrasonic homogenizer (Cole-Palmer Instrumental Company, VCX-750, USA) at a frequency of 20 kHz and a potency of 750 W at 60% for 10 min. EDTA was added to the mix. Later, the mayonnaise type-dressing was transferred to a glass jar previously pre-sterilized until analysis. The pH value of the sample was 4. Avocado mayonnaise type-dressing was stored during 15 days at 4°C ±1°C According to the Mexican Food Equivalent System (Pérez-Lizaur et al., Citation2014), which establishes daily recommendations for food products, the suggested portion size of avocado mayonnaise type-dressing is 5 g. The nutritional value of this portion is: proteins (0.1 g), lipids (2.1 g), carbohydrates (0.3 g), vitamin A (1.1 μg), vitamin C (0.2 mg), folic acid (0.1 μg), vitamin E (1 mg), potassium (0.6 mg), sugars (0.2 g), sodium (29.8 mg), calcium (0.4 mg), selenium (0. 2 μg), cholesterol (3.2 mg), saturated fat (0.2 g), polyunsaturated fat (0.3 g), monounsaturated fat (1.4 g), energy (Kcal 19.5).
2.4. Chemical analysis
Avocado oil was characterized according to the Official Mexican Standard NMX-F-052-SCFI-2008 Fats and Oils/avocado oil (Mexican Norm (NMX), Citation2008). The contents of free fatty acids (as oleic acid), % moisture, % volatiles, color, relative density at 25°C (water), peroxide index (meq/kg), % insoluble matter, % unsaponifiable matter, refraction index, iodine index (cgI2/g) and saponification index (mg KOH/g) were tested. The mayonnaise type-dressing was analyzed for total acidity as acetic acid (%) and pH, according to the Official Mexican Standard NMX-F-341-S-1979 for mayonnaise dressing.
2.5. Fatty acid profile analysis
Fatty acids were esterified according to the technique proposed by Egan et al. (Citation1981)using 14% BF3 in methanol. The analysis of fatty acid profile was made with a gas chromatograph (Agilent Technologies, model 6890N, Net Work GC system), coupled to a mass spectrometer (Agilent Technologies model 5975 inert XL) and equipped with DB-5 column (Agilent Technologies) of 60 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 µm. The temperature of the injector was 250°C (Split ratio of 50:1). A temperature program of 150°C was used, holding 5 min with a gradient of 30°C/min until reaching 210°C followed by a temperature increase to 213°C with a gradient of 1°C/min. The carrier gas was helium (1 mL/min). Mass spectra were obtained by ionization by electron impact at 70 eV. Identification of individual compounds was made with the database HP Chemstation-NIST 05 mass spectral search program, version 2.0d. A mix of standards was used (Sigma-Aldrich, catalogue number 18,920-1AMP).
2.6. Color analysis
L*, a* and b* colorimetric parameters in avocado oil and mayonnaise type-dressing were determined with a colorimeter (Hunter Associate Laboratory, Inc., Reston, Virginia, USA). Hue angle (h◦) was calculated using arc tan (b*/a*)+180 and chroma (C*) was calculated using [a*2 + b*2]1/2. All determinations were performed in triplicate.
2.7. Microbiological analysis
In order to determine the microbial quality of the mayonnaise dressing, the contents of aerobic mesophiles, coliforms, mold, yeasts, Salmonella and E. coli were evaluated according to the Official Mexican Standard NMX-F-341-S-1979. Results were reported as colony formation units (CFU).
2.8. Sensory analysis
Avocado oil and mayonnaise type-dressing were sensory evaluated using a bench top test, with 20 judges and a hedonic test on a scale of 7 points, from “like much” to “dislike much” (Pedrero & Pangborn, Citation1989). The parameters evaluated were odor, flavor and color.
2.9. Statistical analysis
Data were analyzed with a linear analysis of variance (ANOVA) and a Tukey mean comparison test (p ≤ .05). The Minitab 16 software was used to perform the analyses.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Avocado oil analysis
Several aspects should be considered in the development of an avocado mayonnaise type-dressing. A key ingredient is the oil, as it greatly contributes to the sensory properties of the final product. In the present work, we started with an oil yield of 64%, which corresponded to a treatment time of 30 min and amplitude of 80%, centrifugation at 40°C and 8000 rpm for 40 min. Similar data were reported for avocado oil extracted with high-frequency ultrasound (Martínez-Padilla et al., Citation2018). In the present study low-frequency ultrasound was used; however, 35% of the oil was obtained after 20 min of centrifugation. It was also noted that the conditions of the centrifugation process affected the oil yield. Ultrasound facilitates oil extraction due to cavitation forces, where the implosion and explosion of bubbles in the medium during ultrasound processing produce a physical disruption of the cell wall of the oil-containing cells (Xuan et al., Citation2017).
Temperature is another important factor (Yang et al., Citation2020). Previous studies reported that avocado oil should be obtained from a high-quality fruit at temperatures lower than 50°C without the use of solvents, and these conditions were also considered in the present study.
In the same way, the extraction process improves as the ripeness of the fruits is more advanced. Ortiz et al. (Citation2003) mention that this fruit is considered ripe when the minimum content of lipids in the pulp is of 15%. In the present study, avocados were ripe with a 16% ethereal extract.
It is well known that high values of free fatty acids indicate that the oil is easily susceptible to oxidation. Regarding the quality parameters, avocado oil showed lower values of free fatty acids (0.39) than those established by the Mexican standard (), which indicates a high quality of the product. It agrees with previous data reported in extra virgin avocado oil obtained by ultrasound‐assisted aqueous extraction (Xuan et al., Citation2017). The values of moisture and volatile matter (%), relative density, peroxide value, percentage of insoluble matter, saponification index and smoke point were also within the reference values of the Mexican standards. The peroxide value is used to measure the oxidative state of oils. Previous studies indicate that avocado oil obtained from puree previously sonicated at high frequency had a peroxide value higher than 10 meqO2/kg, which is higher than the one established by the Mexican standard (Martínez-Padilla et al., Citation2018). A low free fatty acids content and peroxide value indicate the high quality and stability of avocado oil.
Table 1. Chemical characterization of avocado oil extracted using solvent-free ultrasonic-assisted extraction.Tabla 1. Caracterización quí mica de aceite de aguacate obtenido usando extracción asistida con ultrasonido sin disolventes.
Regarding saponification index, avocado oil produced in this study showed a high value of 190.1 mg KOH/g, which is a measure of oil purity. Smoke point was of 204°C and according to the literature (Wong et al., Citation2010), a virgin avocado oil has a value of approximately ≥200°C ().
On the other hand, the color of avocado oil was emerald green. Previous reports indicate that cold-pressed avocado oil from Hass cultivar has an emerald green color (Qin & Zhong, Citation2016). In addition, the colorimetric parameter a* showed negative values, indicating a green color (), which is within the reported values for cold pressed avocado oil, −5 to −.7 (Wong et al., Citation2008). Given the above, we can observe that the avocado oil obtained of avocado mash processed with ultrasound retained the color characteristics of the fresh pulp. In the sensory analysis, the color and flavor of avocado oil were evaluated as “like much” and “like moderately,” respectively.
Table 2. Parameters color of avocado oil.Tabla 2. Parámetros de color del aceite de aguacate.
The fatty acid profile of avocado oil () showed a high content of oleic acid (70%), which is a desirable quality due to its high oxidative stability and health benefits in the prevention of coronary heart disease (FDA, Citation2018). Similar data has been reported in avocado oil obtained by ultrasound‐assisted aqueous extraction (Xuan et al., Citation2017). On the other hand, linolenic acid was not detected, it has been reported that avocado oil contains from 0% to 2% of this acid. Trans fatty acids were not detected. Data obtained for the fatty acid profile was in accordance with those established by the American Oil Chemists Society (AOCS) for avocado oil. Given the above, we can say that avocado oil extracted by application of ultrasound technology can be used as a healthy ingredient. Several studies have shown that foods rich in oleic acid, such as avocado oil, may have health benefits, and recent evidence suggests that the biological properties of avocado oil include anti-inflammatory activity (Carvajal-Zarrabal et al., Citation2014).
Table 3. Fatty acid profile of avocado oil obtained by using and solvent-free ultrasonic-assisted extraction.Tabla 3. Perfil de ácidos grasos de aceite de aguacate obtenido por extracción asistida con ultrasonido sin disolventes.
3.2. Physicochemical and microbial analysis of mayonnaise type-dressing
The second part of this research was to elaborate a novel avocado mayonnaise type-dressing processed with ultrasound. It was recently reported that two main approaches should be considered in the production of healthy mayonnaise, which are the use of fat replacers, or/and the addition of functional ingredients. In the present work, avocado pulp and oil were added to mayonnaise type-dressing as bioactive ingredients. Mayonnaise traditionally contains 70–80%, oil; however, there is a current market trend to lower oil contents, and therefore the percentage of oil in the avocado mayonnaise type-dressing was of 35.9%. In addition, the calorie content of the avocado mayonnaise type-dressing was similar to that a light commercial mayonnaise product currently sold in Mexico (Procuraduría Federal del Consumidor [PROFECO], Citation2021). On the other hand, the nutritional value of this novel dressing is improved by the contents of vitamin A, C, E and folic acid.
As mentioned above, product development with avocado pulp is a technological challenge due to its high lipid and chlorophyll contents, as well as the potential for enzymatic browning. A low pH is an important factor that influences the color and microbial load of mayonnaise type-dressings and, in the case of products derived from avocado, should be kept under 5 in order to inactivate polyphenoloxidase (Guzmán et al., Citation2002), an enzyme that causes enzymatic browning of avocado pulp. The avocado mayonnaise type-dressing had a pH value of 4 and 0.5% acidity, which are within the range established by the Official Mexican Standard NMX-F-102.
Another well-known parameter in food development is color since the first contact with the consumer is usually visual. In the case of avocado products, the green color must be preserved. In the present research, the a* parameter showed values between −14.8 and −11.0, it was superior at the acceptability region reported by López-Malo et al. (Citation1998) (below a* = > −.47) in avocado puree. Hue angles of the mayonnaise type-dressing were in the range of 108–104° during storage, placing it in the green region on the color space (). The chroma of the color, which measures how much color is present, showed a reduction at the end of the storage period (). In addition, the lightness (L*) of avocado mayonnaise type-dressing, which has an impact on the perceived appearance of the product, showed a value of 71.8 at the start of the storage period. A previous work about a mayonnaise formulated with xanthan gum at 0.5% reported a decrease of L* values at higher amplitudes (Kumar et al., Citation2021). In the present study, the ultrasound amplitude was of 80%. In addition, a desirable opaque color has been reported in mayonnaise processed with ultrasound, and it was attributed to pyrolytic degradation of the interfacial layer due to the ultrasound processing (Tiwari et al., Citation2010).
Figure 1. Color and hue angle of mayonnaise type-dressing added with avocado pulp and oil.Figura 1. Color y ángulo de matiz de mayonesa tipo aderezo adicionada con pulpa y aceite de aguacate.
Table 4. Parameters color of mayonnaise type-dressing added with pulp and oil avocado.Tabla 4. Parámetros de color de mayonesa tipo aderezo adicionada con pulpa y aceite de aguacate.
In order to obtain an acceptable microbial stability, the pH has to be kept at approximately 4.0. The microbial analysis shows that the mayonnaise type-dressing at days 0 and 15 complied with the limits established in the Mexican standards regarding mold, yeast, and aerobic mesophiles, while E. coli and Salmonella were negative ().
Table 5. Microbial quality of mayonnaise type-dressing added with pulp and oil avocado during refrigerated storage.Tabla 5. Calidad microbiológica de mayonesa tipo aderezo adicionada con pulpa y aceite de aguacate durante su almacenamiento bajo refrigeración.
In addition, acidity is also an important factor in the formulation of mayonnaise-type dressing, which influences microbial load, particularly in the inhibition of bacterial and yeast growth (Levine & Fellers, Citation1940). Vinegar was used as an ingredient in the formulation of avocado mayonnaise type-dressing due to its antibacterial action on E. coli and Salmonella (Entani et al., Citation1998), which is attributed to the hurdle effect of the organic acids present in the vinegar (Zhu et al., Citation2012). In addition, a recent report showed that ultrasound treatment significantly decreased the microbial load in low-fat mayonnaise without any chemical preservative (Tavakoli et al., Citation2021).
It has also been reported that ultrasound improves the inactivation of microorganisms, which is attributed to a physical process called acoustic cavitation.
Sensory analysis is another important consideration in the development of a food product, avocado-based mayonnaise was evaluated as “like much” regarding color, odor and flavor, while texture was evaluated as “like moderately.” It has been reported that sensory characteristics closest to traditional mayonnaise have been obtained by adding food gums such as xanthan gums at 0.1–.5% (Bortnowska & Makiewicz, Citation2006; Kumar et al., Citation2021). In the present work, xanthan gum was used at 0.35% to prepare a low-fat mayonnaise type-dressing and that avocado mayonnaise type-dressing exhibited no phase separation during storage by visual evaluation (data not shown). It has been reported that xanthan gum is used in mayonnaise manufacture as stabilizer and emulsifier, it increases the viscosity and prevents the phase separation (Depree & Savage, Citation2001; Naji et al., Citation2012). Generally, as the oil content of the dressing increases, less xanthan gum is employed for stabilization. Kumar et al. (Citation2021) reported that xanthan gum at 0.5% had a positive impact on the stability of emulsion of mayonnaise processed with ultrasound.
On the other hand, the effect of ultrasonication in the emulsion stability of mayonnaise has been reported in previous studies, for example, a recent study showed that sonication of low-fat mayonnaise at 20 kHz and 750 W increased its stability (Tavakoli et al., Citation2021). In addition, Kumar et al. (Citation2021) showed that ultrasonically processed mayonnaise at 20 kHz and 500 W had higher storage stability than a market sample.
It is noteworthy that the development of a healthy product with avocado pulp and oil accepted by consumers is possible. This suggests a potential application of ultrasound technology in the development of novel and healthy food products.
4. Conclusions
Ultrasound is a potential technology to develop mayonnaise type-dressing added with healthy ingredients such as pulp and oil avocado, resulting in a product with sensory qualities accepted by consumers, as well as a safe product during storage under refrigeration. This is the first report to produce novel mayonnaise type-dressing added with avocado pulp and oil.
Author contributions
Investigation, R.I.G.G., R.C.A.T.; Methodology; R.I.G.G., R.C.A.T., R.L.M., Y.C.R.; Formal analysis, R.I.G.G., R.C.A.T., R.L.M.; Data curation, R.I.G.G., R.C.A.T.; Conceptualization, R.I.G.G; Supervision, R.I.G.G., R.L.M., Y.C.R., M.S.H.M.; Writing – original draft, R.I.G.G, M.S.H.M.; Writing – review and editing, R.I.G.G., M.S.H.M.; Project administration, R.I.G.G.
Acknowledgements
Rosa Carmina Ayala Tirado is grateful to the graduate program in Food Science from CONACYT by the scholarship granted (2016).
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Additional information
Funding
References
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