135
Views
28
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

The Subtle Nature of Presidential Debate Influence

Pages 251-261 | Published online: 02 Feb 2017

References

  • Abramowitz, A. I. (1978). The impact of a presidential debate on voter rationality. American Journal of Political Science , 22, 680–690.
  • Apker, J. , & Voss, C. R. W. (1994). The student voter. In D. B. Carlin & M. S. McKinney (Eds.), The 1992 presidential debates in focus (pp. 187–202). Westport, CT: Praeger.
  • Atkin, C. , Hocking, J. , & McDermott, S. (1979). Home state voter response and secondary media coverage. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford , 1976 (pp. 429–445). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  • Barnett, G. A. (1981). A multidimensional analysis of the 1976 presidential campaign. Communication Quarterly , 29, 156–165.
  • Becker, L. B. , Sobowale, I. A. , Cobbey, R. E. , & Eyal, C. H. (1980). Debates' effects on voters' understanding of candidates and issues. In G. F. Bishop , R. G. Meadow , & M. Jackson-Beeck (Eds.), The presidential debates: Media, electoral, and policy perspectives (pp. 126–139). New York: Praeger.
  • Becker, S. L. , & Kraus, S. (1978). The study of campaign '76: An overview. Communication Monographs , 45, 265–267.
  • Becker, S. L. , Pepper, R. , Weimer, L. A. , & Kim, J. K. (1979). Information flow and the shaping of meanings. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford , 1976 (pp. 384–307). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  • Ben-Zeev, S. , & White, I. S. (1962). Effects and implications. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Kennedy vs. Nixon , 1960(pp. 331–337). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  • Benoit, W. L. , & Currie, H. (2001). Inaccuracies in media coverage of the 1996 and 2000 presidential debates. Argumentation and Advocacy , 38, 28–39.
  • Benoit, W. L. , McKinney, M. S. , & Holbert, R. L. (2001). Beyond learning and persona: Extending the scope of presidential debate effects. Communication Monographs , 68, 259–273.
  • Benoit, W. L. , Webber, D. , & Berman, J. (1998). Effects of presidential debate watching and ideology on attitudes and knowledge. Argumentation and Advocacy , 34, 163–172.
  • Benoit, W. L. , & Wells, W. T. (1996). Candidates in conflict: Persuasive attack and defense in the 1992 presidential debates. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
  • Berke, R. L. , & Sack, K. (2000, October 11). The 2000 campaign: The debates; in debate 2, microscope focuses on Gore. The New York Times [Electronic version]. Retrieved from: http://nytimes.qpass.com/search/restricted/article.
  • Berquist, G. F. , Golden, J. L. (1981). Media rhetoric, criticism and the public perception of the 1980 presidential debates. Quarterly Journal of Speech , 67, 125–137.
  • Bishop, G. F. , Oldendick, R. W. , & Tuchfarber, A. J. (1978). Debate watching and the acquisition of political knowledge. Journal of Communication , 28, 99–113.
  • Bishop, G. F. , Oldendick, R. W. , & Tuchfarber, A. J. (1980). The presidential debates as a device for increasing the “rationality” of electoral behavior. In G. F. Bishop , R. G. Meadow , & M. Jackson-Beeck (Eds.), The presidential debates: Media, electoral, and policy perspectives (pp. 179–196). New York: Praeger.
  • Bowes, J. E. , & Strentz, H. (1979). Candidate images: Stereotyping and the 1976 debates. In B. D. Rubin (Ed.), Communication yearbook 2 (pp. 391–406). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
  • Brydon, S. R. (1985). The two faces of Jimmy Carter: The transformation of a presidential debater, 1976 and 1980. Central States Speech Journal , 36, 138–151.
  • Burgoon, J. K. (1980). Nonverbal communication research in the 1970s: An overview. In D. Nimmo (Ed.), Communication yearbook 4 (pp. 179–197). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
  • Burgoon, J. K. , & Hale, J. L. (1984). The fundamental topoi of relational communication. Communication Monographs , 51, 193–214.
  • Burgoon, J. K. , & Hale, J. L. (1987). Validation and measurement of the fundamental themes in relational communication. Communication Monographs , 54, 1941.
  • Carpenter, E. (1986). The new languages. In G. Gumpert & R. Cathcart (Eds.), Intermedia: Interpersonal communication in a media world (pp. 353–367). New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Casey, G. , & Fitzgerald, M. R. (1977, October). Candidate images and the 1976 presidential debates. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwest Association for Public Opinion Research, Chicago, IL.
  • Center for Media and Public Affairs (2000, October 18). Bush is still the biggest joke on late night tv. Retrieved from: http://www.cmpa.com/pressrel/electpr7.htm.
  • Chaffee, S. H. (1978). Presidential debates—Are they helpful to voters? Communication Monographs , 45, 330–346.
  • Chaffee, S. H. , & Choe, S. Y. (1980). Time of decision and media use during the Ford-Carter campaign. Public Opinion Quarterly , 44, 53–69.
  • Chaffee, S. H. , & Dennis, J. (1979). Presidential debates: An empirical assessment. In A. Ranney (Ed.), The past and future of presidential debates (pp. 75–101). Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research.
  • Chesebro, J. W. (1984). The media reality: Epistemological functions of media in cultural systems. Critical Studies in Mass Communication , 7, 111–130.
  • Davis, D. K. (1979). Influence on vote decisions. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford , 1976 (pp. 331–347). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  • Davis, M. H. (1982). Voting intentions and the 1980 Carter-Reagan debate. Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 12, 481–492.
  • Dennis, J. , Chaffee, S. H. , & Choe, S. Y. (1979). Impact on partisan, image, and issue voting. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford , 1976 (pp. 314–330). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  • Drew, D. , & Weaver, D. (1991). Voter learning in the 1988 presidential election: Did the debates and the media matter? Journalism Quarterly , 68, 27–37.
  • Eadie, W. F. , Krivonos, P. D. , & Goodman, G. (1977, April). Winners and losers: Credibility and the first debate. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Central States Speech Association, Southfield, MI.
  • Ellsworth, J. W. (1965). Rationality and campaigning: A content analysis of the 1960 presidential campaign debates. The Western Political Quarterly , 43, 794–802.
  • Feigert, F. B. , & Bowling, W. J. (1980, April). The impact of televised debates on the 1976 presidential election: New myths and old realities. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, IL.
  • Geer, J. G. (1988). The effects of presidential debates on the electorate's preferences for candidates. American Politics Quarterly , 16, 486–501.
  • Graber, D. A. (1987). Television news without pictures? Critical Studies in Mass Communication , 4, 74–87.
  • Graber, D. A. , & Kim, Y. Y. (1978). Why John Q. Voter did not learn much from the 1976 presidential debates. In B. D. Rubin (Ed.), Communication yearbook 2 (pp. 407–421). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
  • Hagner, P. R. , & Rieselbach, L. N. (1980). The impact of the 1976 presidential debates: Conversion or reinforcement? In G. F. Bishop , R. G. Meadow , & M. Jackson-Beeck (Eds.), The presidential debates: Media, electoral, and policy perspectives (pp. 157–178). New York: Praeger.
  • Hall, M. , Hillkirk, S. , & Ullman, O. (2000, October 18). From the experts. USA Today , A5.
  • Hellweg, S. A. , Pfau, M. , & Brydon, S. R. (1992). Televised presidential debates: Advocacy in contemporary America. New York: Praeger.
  • Hinck, E. A. (1993). Enacting the presidency: Political argument, presidential debates, and presidential character. Westport, CT: Praeger.
  • James, C. (2000, November 4). Critic's notebook: Where politics and comedy intermingle, the punch lines can draw blood. The New York Times [Electronic version]. Retrieved from: http://nytimes.qpass.com/search/restricted/article.
  • Jamieson, K. H. (1988). Eloquence in an electronic age: The transformation of political speechmaking. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Jamieson, K. H. , & Birdsell, D. S. (1988). Presidential debates: The challenge of creating an informed electorate. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Jamieson, K. H. , & Adasiewicz, C. (2000). What voters can learn from election debates. In S. Coleman (Ed.), Televised election debates: International perspectives (pp. 25–42). New York: St. Martin's Press.
  • Katz, E. , & Feldman, J. J. (1962). The debates in light of research: A survey of surveys. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Kennedy vs. Nixon , 1960 (pp. 173–223). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  • Kelley, S., Jr. (1962). Candidate debates: Some facts and issues. Public Opinion Quarterly , 26, 351–366.
  • Kelley, S., Jr. (1983). Interpreting elections. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
  • Kendall, K. E. (1995). Presidential campaign discourse: Strategic communication problem Albany: State University of New York Press.
  • Kennamer, J. D. (1987). Debate viewing and debate discussion as predictors of campaign cognition. Journalism Quarterly , 64, 114–118.
  • Kraus, S. (1988). Televised presidential debates and public policy. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
  • Krivonos, P. D. (1976). The first debate: Ford versus Carter—A behavioral criticism. Exetasis , 3, 3–9.
  • Ladd, E. C. , & Ferree, G. D. (1981, December/January). Were the pollsters really wrong? Public Opinion , 13–20.
  • Lang, G. E. (1987). Still seeking answers. Critical Studies in Mass Communication , 4, 211–214.
  • Lang, G. E. , & Lang, K. (1979). Immediate and mediated responses: First debate. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford , 1976 (pp. 289–313). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  • Lang, K. , & Lang, G. E. (1979). Reactions of viewers. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford , 1976 (pp. 313–330). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  • Lanoue, D. L. (1992). One that made a difference: Cognitive consistency, political knowledge, and the 1980 presidential debate. Public Opinion Quarterly , 56, 168–184.
  • Lemert, J. B. (1993). Do televised presidential debates help inform voters? Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 37, 83–94.
  • Lemert, J. B. , Elliott, W. R. , Bernstein, J. M. , Rosenberg, W. L. , & Nestvold, K. J. (1991). News verdicts, the debates, and presidential campaigns. New York: Praeger.
  • Leuthold, D. A. , & Valentine, D. C. (1981). How Reagan “won” the Cleveland debate: Audience predispositions and presidential debate “winners.” Speaker and Gavel , 18, 60–66.
  • Lichtenstein, A. (1982). Differences in impact between local and national televised political candidates' debates. Western Journal of Speech Communication , 46, 296.
  • Lubell, S. (1962). Personalities vs. issues. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Kennedy vs. Nixon , 1960 (pp. 151–162). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  • Lupfer, M. B. , & Wald, K. D. (1979). An experimental study of the first Carter-Ford debate. Experimental Study of Politics , 7, 20–40.
  • Mayer, M. A. , & Carlin, D. B. (1994). Debates as a voter education tool. In D. B. Carlin & M. S. McKinney (Eds.), The 1992 presidential debates in focus (pp. 127–138). New York: Praeger.
  • McCroskey, J. C. (1966). Scales for the measurement of ethos. Speech Monographs , 33, 65–72.
  • McCroskey, J. C. , & Jenson, T. A. (1975). Image of mass media news sources. Journal of Broadcasting , 19, 169–180.
  • McCroskey, J. C. , & Young, T. J. (1981). Ethos and credibility: The construct and its measurement after three decades. Central States Speech Journal , 32, 24–34.
  • McLeod, T. M. , Durall, J. A. , Ziemke, D. A. , & Bybee, C. A. (1979). Reactions of young and older voters: Expanding the contexts of effects. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford , 1976 (pp. 348–367). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  • Meadow, R. G. (1987). A speech by any other name. Critical Studies in Mass Communication , 4, 207–210.
  • Meyrowitz, J. (1985). No sense of place: The impact of electronic media on social behavior. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Middleton, R. (1962). National television debates and presidential voting decisions. Public Opinion Quarterly , 26, 426–438.
  • Miller, A. H. , & MacKuen, M. (1979). Informing the electorate: A national study. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford , 1976 (pp. 269–297). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  • Morrow, G. R. (1977). Changes in perceptions of Ford and Carter following their first presidential debate. Perceptual and Motor Skills , 45, 423–429.
  • Mortensen, C. D. (1968). The influence of television on policy discussion. Quarterly Journal of Speech , 54, 277–281.
  • Mulder, R. D. (1978). The political effects of the Carter-Ford debate: An experimental analysis. Sociological Focus , 11, 33–45.
  • O'Keefe, G. J. , & Mendelsohn, H. (1979). Media influences and their anticipation. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford , 1976 (pp. 405–417). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  • Owen, D. (1991). Media messages in American presidential elections. New York: Greenwood Press.
  • Paletz, D. L. , & Guthrie, K. K. (1987). Three faces of Ronald Reagan. Journal of Communication , 37, 7–23.
  • Payne, J. G. , Golden, J. L. , Marlier, J. , & Ratzan, S. C. (1989). Perceptions of the 1988 presidential and vice-presidential debates. American Behavioral Scientist , 32, 425–435.
  • Pfau, M. (1990). A channel approach to television influence. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 34, 195–24.
  • Pfau, M. , Cho, J. , & Chong, K. (2001). Impact of communication forms in presidential campaigns: Influences on candidate perceptions and democratic process. Press/Politics , 6, 88–105.
  • Pfau, M. , Diedrich, T. , Larson, K. M , & Van Winkle, K. M. (1993). Relational and competence perceptions of presidential candidates during primary election campaigns. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 37, 275–292.
  • Pfau, M. , & Eveland, W. P., Jr. (1994). Debates versus other communication sources: The pattern of information and influence. In D. B. Carlin & M. S. McKinney (Eds.), The 1992 presidential debates in focus (pp. 155–173). New York: Praeger.
  • Pfau, M. , & Eveland, W. P., Jr. (1996). Influence of traditional and non-traditional news media in the 1992 election campaign. Western Journal of Communication , 60, 214–232.
  • Pfau, M. , & Kang, J. G. (1991). The impact of relational messages on candidate influence in televised political debates. Communication Studies , 42, 114–128.
  • Robinson, J. P. (1979). The polls. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford , 1976 (pp. 262–268). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  • Rose, D. D. (1979). Citizen uses of the Ford-Carter debates. Journal of Politics , 41, 214–221.
  • Roper, B. W. (1977, September). The effects of debates on the Carter/Ford election. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, DC.
  • Roper, E. (1960, November). Polling post-mortem. Saturday Review , 10–13.
  • Rosenthal, P. I. (1963). Ethos in the presidential campaign of 1960: A study of the basic persuasive process of the Kennedy-Nixon television debates. Ph.D., dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles.
  • Rouner, D. , & Perloff, R. M. (1988). Selective perception of outcome of first 1984 presidential debate. Journalism Quarterly , 65, 141–147.
  • Ruesch, J. , & Bateson, G. (1951). Communication: The social matrix of psychiatry. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
  • Schroeder, A. (2000). Presidential debates: Forty years of high-risk tv. New York: Columbia University Press.
  • Sears, D. O. , & Chaffee, S. H. (1979). Uses and effects of the 1976 debates: An overview of empirical studies. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Carter vs. Ford , 1976 (pp. 223–261). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  • Sebald, H. (1962). Limitations of communication: Mechanisms of image maintenance in the form of selective perception, selective memory, and selective distortion. Journal of Communication , 12, 142–149.
  • Sella, M. (2000, September 24). The stiff guy vs. the dumb guy. The New York Times [Electronic version]. Retrieved from http://nytimes.qpass.com/search/restricted/article.
  • Sigelman, L. , & Sigelman, C. K. (1984). Judgments of the Carter-Reagan debate: The eyes of the beholder. Public Opinion Quarterly , 48, 624–628.
  • Simons, H. W. , & Liebowitz, K. (1979). Shifts in candidate images. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great clebates: Carter vs. Ford , 1976 (pp. 398–404). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  • Smith, R. G. (1977). The Carter-Ford debates: Some perceptions from academe. Central States Speech Journal , 28, 250–257.
  • Steeper, F. T. (1980). Public response to Gerald Ford's statements on Eastern Europe in the second debate. In G. F. Bishop , R. G. Meadow , & M. Jackson-Beeck (Eds.), The presidential debates: Media, electoral, and policy perspectives (pp. 81–101). New York: Praeger.
  • Strope, L. (2000, October 22). Pols' images are live from New York. Wisconsin State Journal , A-4.
  • Swerdlow, J. L. (1984). Beyond debate: A paper on televised presidential debates. New York: Twentieth Century Fund.
  • Tannenbaum, P. H. , Greenberg, B. S. , & Silverman, F. R. (1962). Candidate images. In S. Kraus (Ed.), The great debates: Kennedy vs. Nixon , 1960 (pp. 271–288). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  • Traugott, M. W. (2001). Assessing poll performance in the 2000 campaign. Public Opinion Quarterly , 65, 389–419.
  • Twentieth Century Task Force on Televised Presidential Debates (1979). With the nation watching: Report of the Twentieth Century Task Force on Televised Presidential Debates. Lexington, MA: D. C. Health & Company.
  • Vancil, D. L. , & Pendel, S. D. (1984). Winning presidential debates: An analysis of criteria influencing audience response. Western Journal of Speech Communication , 48, 62–74.
  • Wald, K. D. , & Lupfer, M. B. (1978). The presidential debate as a civics lesson. Public Opinion Quarterly , 42, 342–353.
  • Walker, J. R. , & Peterson, D. S. (1981, November). Image changers and presidential debates. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association, Anaheim, CA.
  • Watzlawick, P. , Beavin, J. H. , & Jackson, D. D. (1967). Pragmatics of human communication: A study of interactional patterns, pathologies, and paradoxes. New York: W. W. Norton.
  • West, D. M. (2000). How issue ads have reshaped American politics. In J. A. Thurber , C. J. Nelson , & D. A. Dulio (Eds.), Crowded airwaves: Campaign advertising in elections (pp. 149–169). Washington, D. C.: Brookings Institution.
  • Zhu, J. H. , Milavsky, J. R , & Biswas, R. (1994). Do televised debates affect image perception more than issue knowledge. Human Communication Research , 20, 302–333.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.