2,764
Views
55
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Placebo and Nocebo Effects: A Complex Interplay Between Psychological Factors and Neurochemical Networks

, &

References

  • Ader, R. (1997). The role of conditioning in pharmacotherapy. In A. Harrington (Ed.), The placebo effect: An interdisciplinary exploration (pp. 138–165). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  • Amanzio, M., & Benedetti, F. (1999). Neuropharmacological dissection of placebo analgesia: Expectation-activated opioid systems versus conditioning-activated specific subsystems. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience,19, 484–494.
  • Amanzio, M., Corazzini, L. L., Vase, L., & Benedetti, F. (2009). A systematic review of adverse events in placebo groups of anti-migraine clinical trials. Pain,146, 261–269. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2009.07.010
  • Amanzio, M., Pollo, A., Maggi, G., & Benedetti, F. (2001). Response variability to analgesics: A role for non-specific activation of endogenous opioids. Pain,90, 205–215. doi:10.1016/S0304-3959(00)00486-3
  • Andre, J., Zeau, B., Pohl, M., Cesselin, F., Benoliel, J.-J., & Becker, C. (2005). Involvement of cholecystokininergic systems in anxiety-induced hyperalgesia in male rats: Behavioral and biochemical studies. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience,25, 7896–7904. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0743-05.2005
  • Atlas, L. Y., Whittington, R. A., Lindquist, M. A., Wielgosz, J., Sonty, N., & Wager, T. D. (2012). Dissociable influences of opiates and expectations on pain. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience,32, 8053–8064. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0383-12.2012
  • Balint, M. (1955). The doctor, his patient, and the illness. The Lancet,265, 683–688. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(55)91061-8
  • Barsky, A. J., Saintfort, R., Rogers, M. P., & Borus, J. F. (2002). Nonspecific medication side effects and the nocebo phenomenon. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association,287, 622–627. doi:10.1001/jama.287.5.622
  • Benedetti, F. (2014). Placebo effects (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
  • Benedetti, F., Amanzio, M., Baldi, S., Casadio, C., & Maggi, G. (1999a). Inducing placebo respiratory depressant responses in humans via opioid receptors. The European Journal of Neuroscience,11, 625–631. doi:10.1046/j.1460-9568.1999.00465.x
  • Benedetti, F., Amanzio, M., Casadio, C., Oliaro, A., & Maggi, G. (1997). Blockade of nocebo hyperalgesia by the cholecystokinin antagonist proglumide. Pain,71, 135–140. doi:10.1016/S0304-3959(97)03346-0
  • Benedetti, F., Amanzio, M., & Maggi, G. (1995). Potentiation of placebo analgesia by proglumide. The Lancet,346, 1231. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(95)92938-X
  • Benedetti, F., Amanzio, M., Rosato, R., & Blanchard, C. (2011a). Nonopioid placebo analgesia is mediated by CB1 cannabinoid receptors. Nature Medicine,17, 1228–1230. doi:10.1038/nm.2435
  • Benedetti, F., Amanzio, M., & Thoen, W. (2011b). Disruption of opioid-induced placebo responses by activation of cholecystokinin type-2 receptors. Psychopharmacology,213, 791–797. doi:10.1007/s00213-010-2037-y
  • Benedetti, F., Amanzio, M., Vighetti, S., & Asteggiano, G. (2006a). The biochemical and neuroendocrine bases of the hyperalgesic nocebo effect. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience,26, 12014–12022. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2947-06.2006
  • Benedetti, F., Arduino, C., & Amanzio, M. (1999b). Somatotopic activation of opioid systems by target-directed expectations of analgesia. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience,19, 3639–3648.
  • Benedetti, F., Arduino, C., Costa, S., Vighetti, S., Tarenzi, L., Rainero, I., & Asteggiano, G. (2006b). Loss of expectation-related mechanisms in Alzheimer’s disease makes analgesic therapies less effective. Pain,121, 133–144. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2005.12.016
  • Benedetti, F., Carlino, E., & Pollo, A. (2011c). Hidden administration of drugs. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics,90, 651–661. doi:10.1038/clpt.2011.206
  • Benedetti, F., & Frisaldi, E. (2014). Creating placebo responders and nonresponders in the laboratory: Boons and banes. Pain Management,4, 165–167. doi:10.2217/pmt.14.11
  • Benedetti, F., Lanotte, M., Lopiano, L., & Colloca, L. (2007). When words are painful: Unraveling the mechanisms of the nocebo effect. Neuroscience,147, 260–271. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.02.020
  • Benedetti, F., Maggi, G., Lopiano, L., Lanotte, M., Rainero, I., Vighetti, S., & Pollo, A. (2003a). Open versus hidden medical treatments: The patient’s knowledge about a therapy affects the therapy outcome. Prevention & Treatment,6, No Pagination Specified. doi:10.1037/1522-3736.6.1.61a
  • Benedetti, F., Pollo, A., Lopiano, L., Lanotte, M., Vighetti, S., & Rainero, I. (2003b). Conscious expectation and unconscious conditioning in analgesic, motor, and hormonal placebo/nocebo responses. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience,23, 4315–4323.
  • Bingel, U., Lorenz, J., Schoell, E., Weiller, C., & Büchel, C. (2006). Mechanisms of placebo analgesia: RACC recruitment of a subcortical antinociceptive network. Pain,120, 8–15. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2005.08.027
  • Bingel, U., Wanigasekera, V., Wiech, K., Ni Mhuircheartaigh, R., Lee, M. C., Ploner, M., & Tracey, I. (2011). The effect of treatment expectation on drug efficacy: Imaging the analgesic benefit of the opioid remifentanil. Science Translational Medicine,3, 70ra14. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3001244
  • Brody, H., & Brody, D. (2011). The placebo response: How you can release the body’s inner pharmacy for better health. New York, NY: Harper.
  • Carlino, E., Frisaldi, E., & Benedetti, F. (2014). Pain and the context. Nature Reviews. Rheumatology,10, 348–355. doi:10.1038/nrrheum.2014.17
  • Chua, P., Krams, M., Toni, I., Passingham, R., & Dolan, R. (1999). A functional anatomy of anticipatory anxiety. NeuroImage,9, 563–571. doi:10.1006/nimg.1999.0407
  • Colloca, L., & Benedetti, F. (2007). Nocebo hyperalgesia: How anxiety is turned into pain. Current Opinion in Anaesthesiology,20, 435–439. doi:10.1097/ACO.0b013e3282b972fb
  • Colloca, L., Lopiano, L., Lanotte, M., & Benedetti, F. (2004). Overt versus covert treatment for pain, anxiety, and Parkinson’s disease. The Lancet. Neurology,3, 679–684. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(04)00908-1
  • Colloca, L., & Miller, F. G. (2011). How placebo responses are formed: A learning perspective. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences,366, 1859–1869. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0398
  • Colloca, L., Tinazzi, M., Recchia, S., Le Pera, D., Fiaschi, A., Benedetti, F., & Valeriani, M. (2008). Learning potentiates neurophysiological and behavioral placebo analgesic responses. Pain,139, 306–314. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2008.04.021
  • de la Fuente-Fernández, R., Phillips, A. G., Zamburlini, M., Sossi, V., Calne, D. B., Ruth, T. J., & Stoessl, A. J. (2002). Dopamine release in human ventral striatum and expectation of reward. Behavioural Brain Research,136, 359–363. doi:10.1016/S0166-4328(02)00130-4
  • de la Fuente-Fernández, R., Ruth, T. J., Sossi, V., Schulzer, M., Calne, D. B., & Stoessl, A. J. (2001). Expectation and dopamine release: Mechanism of the placebo effect in Parkinson’s disease. Science (New York, N.Y.),293, 1164–1166. doi:10.1126/science.1060937
  • de la Fuente-Fernández, R., & Stoessl, A. J. (2002). The placebo effect in Parkinson’s disease. Trends in Neurosciences,25, 302–306. doi:10.1016/S0166-2236(02)02181-1
  • Di Blasi, Z., Harkness, E., Ernst, E., Georgiou, A., & Kleijnen, J. (2001). Influence of context effects on health outcomes: A systematic review. The Lancet,357, 757–762. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04169-6
  • Eippert, F., Bingel, U., Schoell, E. D., Yacubian, J., Klinger, R., Lorenz, J., & Büchel, C. (2009). Activation of the opioidergic descending pain control system underlies placebo analgesia. Neuron,63, 533–543. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2009.07.014
  • Eippert, F., Finsterbusch, J., Bingel, U., & Buchel, C. (2009). Direct evidence for spinal cord involvement in placebo analgesia. Science (New York, N.Y.),326, 404. doi:10.1126/science.1180142
  • Flaten, M. A., Simonsen, T., & Olsen, H. (1999). Drug-related information generates placebo and nocebo responses that modify the drug response. Psychosomatic Medicine,61, 250–255. doi:10.1097/00006842-199903000-00018
  • Fox, M. D., & Raichle, M. E. (2007). Spontaneous fluctuations in brain activity observed with functional magnetic resonance imaging. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience,8, 700–711. doi:10.1038/nrn2201
  • Frisaldi, E., Carlino, E., Lanotte, M., Lopiano, L., & Benedetti, F. (2014). Characterization of the thalamic-subthalamic circuit involved in the placebo response through single-neuron recording in Parkinson patients. Cortex: A Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior,60, 3–9. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2013.12.003
  • Frischholz, E. J. (2007). Hypnosis, hynotizability, and placebo. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis,50, 49–58. doi:10.1080/00029157.2007.10401597
  • Giang, D. W., Goodman, A. D., Schiffer, R. B., Mattson, D. H., Petrie, M., Cohen, N., & Ader, R. (1996). Conditioning of cyclophosphamide-induced leukopenia in humans. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences,8, 194–201.
  • Giudetti, L., & Pampallona, A. (2014). The Ippocrates project for doctor-patient relationship enhancement. Milan, Italy: Quarta Foundation.
  • Goebel, M. U., Trebst, A. E., Steiner, J., Xie, Y. F., Exton, M. S., Frede, S., … Schedlowski, M. (2002). Behavioral conditioning of immunosuppression is possible in humans. The FASEB Journal,16, 1869–1873. doi:10.1096/fj.02-0389com
  • Gracely, R. H., Dubner, R., Wolskee, P. J., & Deeter, W. R. (1983). Placebo and naloxone can alter post-surgical pain by separate mechanisms. Nature,306, 264–265. doi:10.1038/306264a0
  • Grevert, P., Albert, L. H., & Goldstein, A. (1983). Partial antagonism of placebo analgesia by naloxone. Pain,16, 129–143. doi:10.1016/0304-3959(83)90203-8
  • Hebb, A. L. O., Poulin, J.-F., Roach, S. P., Zacharko, R. M., & Drolet, G. (2005). Cholecystokinin and endogenous opioid peptides: Interactive influence on pain, cognition, and emotion. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry,29, 1225–1238. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2005.08.008
  • Herrnstein, R. J. (1962). Placebo effect in the rat. Science (New York, N.Y.),138, 677–678. doi:10.1126/science.138.3541.677
  • Hilgard, E. R., & Hilgard, J. R. (1975). Hypnosis in the relief of pain. Los Altos, CA: William Kaufmann.
  • Hsieh, J. C., Stone-Elander, S., & Ingvar, M. (1999). Anticipatory coping of pain expressed in the human anterior cingulate cortex: A positron emission tomography study. Neuroscience Letters,262, 61–64. doi:10.1016/S0304-3940(99)00060-9
  • Keltner, J. R., Furst, A., Fan, C., Redfern, R., Inglis, B., & Fields, H. L. (2006). Isolating the modulatory effect of expectation on pain transmission: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience,26, 4437–4443. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4463-05.2006
  • Kirsch, I. (1994). Clinical hypnosis as a nondeceptive placebo: Empirically derived techniques. The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis,37, 95–106. doi:10.1080/00029157.1994.10403122
  • Kirsch, I., Wickless, C., & Moffitt, K. H. (1999). Expectancy and suggestibility: Are the effects of environmental enhancement due to detection? International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis,47, 40–45. doi:10.1080/00207149908410021
  • Kong, J., Gollub, R. L., Polich, G., Kirsch, I., Laviolette, P., Vangel, M., … Kaptchuk, T. J. (2008). A functional magnetic resonance imaging study on the neural mechanisms of hyperalgesic nocebo effect. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience,28, 13354–13362. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2944-08.2008
  • Kong, J., Gollub, R. L., Rosman, I. S., Webb, J. M., Vangel, M. G., Kirsch, I., & Kaptchuk, T. J. (2006). Brain activity associated with expectancy-enhanced placebo analgesia as measured by functional magnetic resonance imaging. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience,26, 381–388.
  • Kong, J., Kaptchuk, T. J., Polich, G., Kirsch, I., & Gollub, R. L. (2007). Placebo analgesia: Findings from brain imaging studies and emerging hypotheses. Reviews in the Neurosciences,18, 173–190. doi:10.1515/REVNEURO.2007.18.3-4.173
  • Koyama, T., McHaffie, J. G., Laurienti, P. J., & Coghill, R. C. (2005). The subjective experience of pain: Where expectations become reality. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,102, 12950–12955. doi:10.1073/pnas.0408576102
  • Koyama, T., Tanaka, Y. Z., & Mikami, A. (1998). Nociceptive neurons in the macaque anterior cingulate activate during anticipation of pain. Neuroreport,9, 2663–2667. doi:10.1097/00001756-199808030-00044
  • Krummenacher, P., Candia, V., Folkers, G., Schedlowski, M., & Schönbächler, G. (2010). Prefrontal cortex modulates placebo analgesia. Pain,148, 368–374. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2009.09.033
  • Levine, J. D., & Gordon, N. C. (1984). Influence of the method of drug administration on analgesic response. Nature,312, 755–756.
  • Levine, J. D., Gordon, N. C., & Fields, H. L. (1978). The mechanism of placebo analgesia. The Lancet,312, 654–657. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(78)92762-9
  • Levine, J. D., Gordon, N. C., Smith, R., & Fields, H. L. (1981). Analgesic responses to morphine and placebo in individuals with postoperative pain. Pain,10, 379–389. doi:10.1016/0304-3959(81)90099-3
  • Lidstone, S. C., Schulzer, M., Dinelle, K., Mak, E., Sossi, V., Ruth, T. J., … Stoessl, A. J. (2010). Effects of expectation on placebo-induced dopamine release in Parkinson disease. Archives of General Psychiatry,67, 857. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.88
  • Lidstone, S. C. C., & Stoessl, A. J. (2007). Understanding the placebo effect: Contributions from neuroimaging. Molecular Imaging and Biology: MIB: The Official Publication of the Academy of Molecular Imaging,9, 176–185. doi:10.1007/s11307-007-0086-3
  • Lieberman, M. D., Jarcho, J. M., Berman, S., Naliboff, B. D., Suyenobu, B. Y., Mandelkern, M., & Mayer, E. A. (2004). The neural correlates of placebo effects: A disruption account. NeuroImage,22, 447–455. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.01.037
  • Lipman, J. J., Miller, B. E., Mays, K. S., Miller, M. N., North, W. C., & Byrne, W. L. (1990). Peak B endorphin concentration in cerebrospinal fluid: Reduced in chronic pain patients and increased during the placebo response. Psychopharmacology,102, 112–116. doi:10.1007/BF02245754
  • Lorenz, J., Hauck, M., Paur, R. C., Nakamura, Y., Zimmermann, R., Bromm, B., & Engel, A. K. (2005). Cortical correlates of false expectations during pain intensity judgments–a possible manifestation of placebo/nocebo cognitions. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity,19, 283–295. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2005.03.010
  • Lydiard, R. B. (1994). Neuropeptides and anxiety: Focus on cholecystokinin. Clinical Chemistry,40, 315–318.
  • Mason, M. F., Norton, M. I., Van Horn, J. D., Wegner, D. M., Grafton, S. T., & Macrae, C. N. (2007). Wandering minds: The default network and stimulus-independent thought. Science (New York, N.Y.),315, 393–395. doi:10.1126/science.1131295
  • Matthews, W. J., Lankton, S., & Lankton, C. (1993). An Ericksonian model of hypnotherapy. In J. W. Rhue, S. J. Lynn, & I. Kirsch (Eds.), Handbook of clinical hypnosis (pp. 187–214). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
  • Mazzoni, G., Venneri, A., McGeown, W. J., & Kirsch, I. (2013). Neuroimaging resolution of the altered state hypothesis. Cortex: A Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior,49, 400–410. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2012.08.005
  • McGeown, W. J., Mazzoni, G., Venneri, A., & Kirsch, I. (2009). Hypnotic induction decreases anterior default mode activity. Consciousness and Cognition,18, 848–855. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2009.09.001
  • McGlashan, T. H., Evans, F. J., & Orne, M. T. (1969). The nature of hypnotic analgesia and placebo response to experimental pain. Psychosomatic Medicine,31, 227–246. doi:10.1097/00006842-196905000-00003
  • Moerman, D. E. (2002). Meaning, medicine and the “placebo effect”. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  • Moerman, D. E., & Jonas, W. B. (2002). Deconstructing the placebo effect and finding the meaning response. Annals of Internal Medicine,136, 471–476. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-136-6-200203190-00011
  • Montgomery, G., & Kirsch, I. (1996). Mechanisms of placebo pain reduction: An empirical investigation. Psychological Science,7, 174–176. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00352.x
  • Mora, M. S., Nestoriuc, Y., & Rief, W. (2011). Lessons learned from placebo groups in antidepressant trials. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences,366, 1879–1888. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0394
  • Petrovic, P., Kalso, E., Petersson, K. M., & Ingvar, M. (2002). Placebo and opioid analgesia- imaging a shared neuronal network. Science (New York, N.Y.),295, 1737–1740. doi:10.1126/science.1067176
  • Ploghaus, A., Narain, C., Beckmann, C. F., Clare, S., Bantick, S., Wise, R., … Tracey, I. (2001). Exacerbation of pain by anxiety is associated with activity in a hippocampal network. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience,21, 9896–9903.
  • Pollo, A., Amanzio, M., Arslanian, A., Casadio, C., Maggi, G., & Benedetti, F. (2001). Response expectancies in placebo analgesia and their clinical relevance. Pain,93, 77–84. doi:10.1016/S0304-3959(01)00296-2
  • Pollo, A., Carlino, E., & Benedetti, F. (2011). Placebo mechanisms across different conditions: From the clinical setting to physical performance. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences,366, 1790–1798. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0381
  • Pollo, A., Vighetti, S., Rainero, I., & Benedetti, F. (2003). Placebo analgesia and the heart. Pain,102, 125–133. doi:10.1016/s0304-3959(02)00345-7
  • Porro, C. A., Baraldi, P., Pagnoni, G., Serafini, M., Facchin, P., Maieron, M., & Nichelli, P. (2002). Does anticipation of pain affect cortical nociceptive systems?. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience,22, 3206–3214.
  • Porro, C. A., Cettolo, V., Francescato, M. P., & Baraldi, P. (2003). Functional activity mapping of the mesial hemispheric wall during anticipation of pain. NeuroImage,19, 1738–1747. doi:10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00184-8
  • Price, D. D., Craggs, J., Verne, G. N., Perlstein, W. M., & Robinson, M. E. (2007). Placebo analgesia is accompanied by large reductions in pain-related brain activity in irritable bowel syndrome patients. Pain,127, 63–72. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2006.08.001
  • Price, D. D., Finniss, D. G., & Benedetti, F. (2008). A comprehensive review of the placebo effect: Recent advances and current thought. Annual Review of Psychology,59, 565–590. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.113006.095941
  • Price, D. D., Milling, L. S., Kirsch, I., Duff, A., Montgomery, G. H., & Nicholls, S. S. (1999). An analysis of factors that contribute to the magnitude of placebo analgesia in an experimental paradigm. Pain,83, 147–156. doi:10.1016/S0304-3959(99)00081-0
  • Raichle, M. E., MacLeod, A. M., Snyder, A. Z., Powers, W. J., Gusnard, D. A., & Shulman, G. L. (2001). A default mode of brain function. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,98, 676–682. doi:10.1073/pnas.98.2.676
  • Rainville, P., & Duncan, G. H. (2006). Functional brain imaging of placebo analgesia: Methodological challenges and recommendations. Pain,121, 177–180. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2006.01.011
  • Reiss, S. (1980). Pavlovian conditioning and human fear: An expectancy model. Behavior Therapy,11, 380–396. doi:10.1016/S0005-7894(80)80054-2
  • Rescorla, R. A. (1988). Pavlovian conditioning: It’s not what you think it is. The American Psychologist,43, 151–160. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.43.3.151
  • Rief, W., Nestoriuc, Y., Von Lilienfeld-Toal, A., Dogan, I., Schreiber, F., Hofmann, S. G., … Avorn, J. (2009). Differences in adverse effect reporting in placebo groups in SSRI and tricyclic antidepressant trials: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Drug Safety: An International Journal of Medical Toxicology and Drug Experience,32, 1041–1056. doi:10.2165/11316580-000000000-00000
  • Sabbioni, M. E., Bovbjerg, D. H., Mathew, S., Sikes, C., Lasley, B., & Stokes, P. E. (1997). Classically conditioned changes in plasma cortisol levels induced by dexamethasone in healthy men. FASEB Journal: Official Publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology,11, 1291–1296.
  • Sawamoto, N., Honda, M., Okada, T., Hanakawa, T., Kanda, M., Fukuyama, H., … Shibasaki, H. (2000). Expectation of pain enhances responses to nonpainful somatosensory stimulation in the anterior cingulate cortex and parietal operculum/posterior insula: An event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging study. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience,20, 7438–7445.
  • Schedlowski, M., & Pacheco-López, G. (2010). The learned immune response: Pavlov and beyond. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity,24, 176–185.
  • Scott, D. J., Stohler, C. S., Egnatuk, C. M., Wang, H., Koeppe, R. A., & Zubieta, J.-K. (2007). Individual differences in reward responding explain placebo-induced expectations and effects. Neuron,55, 325–336. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2007.06.028
  • Scott, D. J., Stohler, C. S., Egnatuk, C. M., Wang, H., Koeppe, R. A., & Zubieta, J.-K. (2008). Placebo and nocebo effects are defined by opposite opioid and dopaminergic responses. Archives of General Psychiatry,65, 220–231. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2007.34
  • Siegel, S. (2002). Explanatory mechanisms for placebo effects: Pavlovian conditioning. In H. A. Guess, A. Kleinman, J. W. Kusek, & L. W. Engel (Eds.), The science of the placebo: Toward an interdisciplinary research agenda (pp. 133–157). London, UK: BMJ Books.
  • Spanos, N. P., Liddy, S. J., Scott, H., Garrard, C., Sine, J., Tirabasso, A., & Hayward, A. (1993). Hypnotic suggestion and placebo for the treatment of chronic headache in a university volunteer sample. Cognitive Therapy and Research,17, 191–205. doi:10.1007/BF01172965
  • Stockhorst, U., Steingrüber, H. J., & Scherbaum, W. A. (2000). Classically conditioned responses following repeated insulin and glucose administration in humans. Behavioural Brain Research,110, 143–159. doi:10.1016/S0166-4328(99)00192-8
  • Vase, L., Robinson, M. E., Verne, G. N., & Price, D. D. (2005). Increased placebo analgesia over time in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) patients is associated with desire and expectation but not endogenous opioid mechanisms. Pain,115, 338–347. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2005.03.014
  • Vits, S., Cesko, E., Enck, P., Hillen, U., Schadendorf, D., & Schedlowski, M. (2011). Behavioural conditioning as the mediator of placebo responses in the immune system. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences,366, 1799–1807. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0392
  • Voudouris, N. J., Peck, C. L., & Coleman, G. (1990). The role of conditioning and verbal expectancy in the placebo response. Pain,43, 121–128. doi:10.1016/0304-3959(90)90057-K
  • Wager, T. D., Matre, D., & Casey, K. L. (2006). Placebo effects in laser-evoked pain potentials. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity,20, 219–230. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2006.01.007
  • Wager, T. D., Rilling, J. K., Smith, E. E., Sokolik, A., Casey, K. L., Davidson, R. J., … Cohen, J. D. (2004). Placebo-induced changes in FMRI in the anticipation and experience of pain. Science (New York, N.Y.),303, 1162–1167. doi:10.1126/science.1093065
  • Wager, T. D., Scott, D. J., & Zubieta, J.-K. (2007). Placebo effects on human mu-opioid activity during pain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,104, 11056–11061. doi:10.1073/pnas.0702413104
  • Watson, A., El-Deredy, W., Iannetti, G. D., Lloyd, D., Tracey, I., Vogt, B. A., … Jones, A. K. P. (2009). Placebo conditioning and placebo analgesia modulate a common brain network during pain anticipation and perception. Pain,145, 24–30. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2009.04.003
  • Watson, A., El-Deredy, W., Vogt, B. A., & Jones, A. K. P. (2007). Placebo analgesia is not due to compliance or habituation: EEG and behavioural evidence. Neuroreport,18, 771–775. doi:10.1097/WNR.0b013e3280c1e2a8
  • Wickramasekera, D. I. (1980). A conditioned response model of the placebo effect. Biofeedback and Self-Regulation,5, 5–18. doi:10.1007/BF00999060
  • Zubieta, J.-K., Bueller, J. A., Jackson, L. R., Scott, D. J., Xu, Y., Koeppe, R. A., … Stohler, C. S. (2005). Placebo effects mediated by endogenous opioid activity on mu-opioid receptors. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience,25, 7754–7762. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0439-05.2005

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.