3,442
Views
21
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Conceptualizing shadow curriculum: definition, features and the changing landscapes of learning cultures

& ORCID Icon

References

  • Afterschool Alliance. (2008). Evaluating backgrounder: A summary of formal evaluations of the academic impact of after school programs. Los Angeles, CA: Author.
  • Aoki, T. T. (2005). Curriculum implementation as instrumental action and as situational praxis. In W. F. Pinar and R. L. Irwin (eds.), Curriculum in a new key: The collected works of Ted T. Aoki (pp. 111–24). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
  • Aoki, T. T. (2005 [1985/1991]). Signs of vitality in curriculum scholarship. In W. F. Pinar & R. L. Irwin (Eds.), Curriculum in a new key (pp. 229–233). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
  • Apple, M. (1990). Ideology and curriculum (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
  • Apple, M. W. (1982). Education and power. Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.
  • Askew, M., Hodgen, J., Hossain, S., & Bretscher, N. (2010). Values and variables: Mathematics education in high-performing countries. London: Nuffield Foundation.
  • Aspinall, R., & Roesgaard, M. H. (2008). Japanese education and the cram school business: Functions, challenges and perspectives of the Juku. The Journal of Japanese Studies, 34(1), 121–125.
  • Aurini, J., & Davies, S. (2004). The transformation of private tutoring: Education in a franchise form. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 29(3), 419–438.
  • Aurini, J., Davies, S., & Dierkes, J. (Eds.). (2013). Out of the shadows: The global intensification of supplementary education. Bingley: Emerald.
  • Bae, S., & Jeon, S. B. (2013). Research on afterschool programs in Korea: Trends and outcomes. International Journal for Research on Extended Education, 1(1), 53–69.
  • Bae, S., Oh, H., Kim, H., Lee, C., & Oh, B. (2010). The impact of after-school programs on educational equality and private tutoring expenses. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(3), 349–361.
  • Baker, D. P., Akiba, M., LeTendre, G. K., & Wiseman, A. W. (2001). Worldwide shadow education: Outside-school learning, institutional quality of schooling, and cross-national mathematics achievement. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 23(1), 1–17.
  • Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Cognitive domain. New York, NY: David McKay.
  • Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J. (1977). Reproduction in education, society and culture. London: Sage.
  • Bowles, S., & Gintis, H. (1976). Schooling in capitalist America: Education reform and the contradictions of economic life. New York, NY: Basic Books.
  • Bray, M. (1999). The shadow education system: private tutoring and its implications for planners. Paris: UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP).
  • Bray, M. (2007 [1999]). The shadow education system: Private tutoring and its implications for planners. Paris: UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP).
  • Bray, M. (2009). Confronting the shadow education system. Paris: UNESCO.
  • Bray, M. (2011). The challenge of shadow education: Private tutoring and its implications for policy makers in the European Union. Brussels: European Commission.
  • Bray, M. (2017). Schooling and its supplements: Changing global patterns and implications for comparative education. Comparative Education Review, 61(3), 469–491.
  • Bray, M., & Kobakhidze, M. N. (2015). Evolving ecosystems in education: The nature and implications of private supplementary tutoring in Hong Kong. Prospects, 45(4), 465–481.
  • Bray, M., Kobakhidze, M. N., Zhang, W., & Liu, J. (2018). The hidden curriculum in a hidden marketplace: Relationships and values in Cambodia’s shadow education system. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 50(4), 1–21.
  • Bray, M., & Kwo, O. (2014). Regulating private tutoring for public good: Policy options for supplementary education in Asia. Bangkok: UNESCO.
  • Bray, M., Kwo, O., & Jokić, B. (Eds.). (2016). Researching private supplementary tutoring: Methodological lessons from diverse cultures (Vol. 32). Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Center.
  • Bray, M., & Kwok, P. (2003). Demand for private supplementary tutoring: Conceptual considerations, and socio-economic patterns in Hong Kong. Economics of Education Review, 22, 611–620.
  • Bray, M., & Lykins, C. (2012). Shadow education private supplementary tutoring and its implications for policy makers in Asia. Thailand: Asian Development Bank.
  • Britzman, D. (1995). Is there a queer pedagogy? Or, stop reading straight. Educational Theory, 45(2), 151–165.
  • Brown, P. U. (2005). The shadow curriculum. Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, 104(1), 119–139.
  • Buchmann, C., Condron, D. J., & Roscigno, V. J. (2010). Shadow education, American style: Test preparation, the SAT and college enrollment. Social Forces, 89, 435–462.
  • Butler, J. (1993). Bodies that matter. New York, NY: Routledge.
  • Byun, S. Y., Chung, H. J., & Baker, D. P. (2018). Global patterns of the use of shadow education: Student, family and national influences. Research in the Sociology of Education, 20, 71–105.
  • Byun, S. Y., & Kim, K. (2008). Parental involvement and student achievement in South Korea: Focusing on differential effects by family background. Korean Journal of Sociology of Education, 18(1), 39–66. [in Korean]
  • Byun, S. Y., & Kim, K. K. (2010). The effects of after school participation on shadow education demand at the lower secondary level in Korea. Korean Journal of Educational Sociology, 20(3), 51–81. [in Korean]
  • Byun, S. Y., & Park, H. (2012). The academic success of East Asian American youth: The role of shadow education. Sociology of Education, 85(1), 40–60.
  • Carr, D., & Wang, L. C. (2015). The effect of after-school classes on private tuition, mental health and academic outcomes: Evidence from Korea. Retrieved from http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0038038516677219?journalCode=soca
  • Chan, C., & Bray, M. (2014). Marketized private tutoring as a supplement to regular schooling: Liberal Studies and the shadow sector in Hong Kong secondary education. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 46(3), 361–388.
  • Cheng, J. (2007, August 14). In Hong Kong, flashy test tutors gain icon status: With faces on billboards, ‘Gods’ promise top scores; Mr. Ng’s two ferraris. The Wall Street Journal. (Ed. Ocidental).
  • Cho, J. S. (2015). Where are Korean bright students at school studying?: Qualitative case study on curriculum of an Einstein hakwon for smart students. ( Master’s Dissertation). Jinju National University of Education. [in Korean]
  • Chou, C. P., & Yuan, J. K. S. (2011). Buxiban in Taiwan. IIAS Newsletter, Spring.
  • Chua, A. (2011). Battle hymn of the tiger mother. New York, NY: Penguin Press.
  • Dang, H. A. (2007). The determinants and impact of private tutoring classes in Vietnam. Economics of Education Review, 26(6), 683–698.
  • Dawson, W. (2010). Private tutoring and mass schooling in East Asia: Reflections of inequality in Japan, South Korea, and Cambodia. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(1), 14–24.
  • de Castro, B. V., & de Guzman, A. B. (2014). A structural equation model of the factors affecting Filipino university students’ shadow education satisfaction and behavioural intentions. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 34(4), 417–435.
  • de Silva, W. A., Gunawardena, C., Jayaweera, S., Perera, L., Rupasinghe, S., & Wijetunge, S. (1991). Extra-school instruction, social equity and educational quality (Sri Lanka). Singapore: The International Development Research Centre.
  • Deleuze, G., & Guattari, F. (1987). A thousand plateaus: Capitalism and schizophrenia (Brian Massumi, Trans.). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
  • Derrida, J. (1972). Discussion: Structure, sign and play in the discourse of the human sciences. In R. Macksey & Donato (Eds.), The structuralist controversy (pp. 247–272). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
  • Eisner, E. (1979). The educational imagination. New York, NY: Macmillan.
  • Entrich, S. R. (2014). German and Japanese education in the shadow—Do out-of-school lessons really contribute to class reproduction? IAFOR Journal of Education, 2(2), 17–53.
  • Entrich, S. R. (2017). Shadow education and social inequalities in Japan: Evolving patterns and conceptual implications. Dordrecht: Springer.
  • Fain, P. (2013). Kaplan 2.0. Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved from https://www.insidehighered.com/news2013/08/15/profit-kaplan-branches-out-learning-science-projects
  • Foondun, A. R. (2002). The issue of private tuition: An analysis of the practice in Mauritius and selected South-East Asian countries. International Review of Education, 48(6), 485–515.
  • Foucault, M. (1997). Ethics: Subjectivity and truth. (P. Rabinow, Ed.). New York, NY: The New Press.
  • Gale, T. (2016). Private supplementary tutoring in a Vancouver independent school ( Unpublished master dissertation). University of British Columbia, Vancouver.
  • George, C. (April 4, 1992). “Time to come out of the shadows”. Straits Times [Singapore]. Global Industry Analysts Inc. (2017). Private tutoring: a global strategic business report. Retrieved from http://www.strategyr.com/pressMCP-1597.asp
  • Giroux & McLaren. (1986). Teacher education and the politics of engagement: The case for democratic schooling. Harvard Education Review, 56(3), 213–238.
  • Giroux, H. A. (2003). Critical theory and educational practice. In M. Baltodano, A. Darder, & R. D. Torres (Eds.), The critical pedagogy reader (pp. 27–56). New York, NY: RoutledgeFalmer.
  • Goduka, M. I. (1999). Affirming unity in diversity in education: Healing with ubuntu. Kenwyn: Juta.
  • Goodlad, J. I. (1984). A place called school. Highstown, NJ: McGraw-Hill.
  • Gough, N. (2003). Thinking globally in environmental education: Implications for internationalizing curriculum inquiry. In W. Pinar (Ed.), International handbook of curriculum research (pp. 53–72). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
  • Gough, N. (2007). Changing planes: Rhizosemiotic play in transnational curriculum inquiry. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 26(3), 279–294.
  • Grossman, J. B., Price, M. L., Fellerath, V., Jucovy, L. Z., Kotloff, L. J., Raley, R., & Walker, K. E. (2002). Multiple choices after school: Findings from the extended service school initiative. PA: Public/Private Ventures.
  • Hagay, G., & Baram-Tsabari, A. (2011). A shadow curriculum: Incorporating students’ interests into the formal biology curriculum. Research in Science Education, 41(5), 611–634.
  • Halliday, D. (2016). Private education, positional goods, and the arms race problem. Politics, Philosophy & Economics, 15(2), 150–169.
  • Halpern, R. (2002). A different kind of child development institution: The history of after-school programs for low-income children. Teachers College Record, 104(2), 178–211.
  • Harnisch, D. L. (1994). Supplemental education in Japan: Juku schooling and its implication. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 26(3), 323–334.
  • Hartmann, S. (2013). Education “home delivery” in Egypt: Private tutoring and social stratification. In M. Bray, A. E. Mazawi, & R. G. Sultana (Eds.), Private tutoring across the Mediterranean: Power dynamics and implications for learning and equity (pp. 57–75). Rotterdam: Sense.
  • Held, D., McGrew, A., Goldblatt, D., & Perraton, J. (1999). Global transformations: Politics, economics, and culture. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
  • Hemachandra, H. L. (1982). The growing phenomenon of tuition classes: The perceived reasons and some latent social factors. Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences, 5(2), 39–69.
  • Hof, S. (2014). Does private tutoring work? The effectiveness of private tutoring: A nonparametric bounds analysis. Education Economics, 22(4), 347–366.
  • Hunt, J. (2008). Make room for daddy… and mommy: Helicopter parents are here! The Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education, 4(1), 9–11.
  • Ireson, J. (2004). Private tutoring: How prevalent and effective is it? London Review of Education, 2(2), 109–122.
  • Jackson, P. W. (1968). Life in classrooms. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
  • Jerrim, J. (2017). Extra time: Private tuition and out-of-school study, new international evidence. London: The Sutton Trust.
  • Jucker, R. (2002). “Sustainability? Never heard of it!” Some basics we shouldn’t ignore when engaging in education for sustainability. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 3(1), 8–18.
  • Jung, J. H., & Pinar, W. F. (2015). Conceptions of curriculum. In D. Wyse, L. Hayward, & J. Pandya (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment (pp. 29–46). Thousand Oaks: SAGE.
  • Jung, J., & Pinar, W. F. (2016). Conceptions of curriculum. In D. Wyse, L. Hayward, & J. Pandya (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment (pp. 29–46). London: SAGE.
  • Kassotakis, M., & Verdis, A. (2013). Shadow education in Greece: Characteristics, consequences and eradication efforts. In M. Bray, A. E. Mazawi, & R. G. Sultana (Eds.), Private tutoring across the Mediterranean: Power dynamics and implications for learning and equity (pp. 93–113). Rotterdam: Sense.
  • Kim, M. (2003). Private institute education: Competition and anxiety of the South Korean middle class. Korean Journal of Society of Education, 13(3), 67–87.
  • Kim, Y. C. (2016). Shadow education, curriculum, and culture of schooling in South Korea. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Kim, Y. C., & Kim, P. S. (2012). Hakwon does not die; fathers die: Secrets of Korean education that Obama did not know. Paju: Academy Press. [in Korean].
  • Kim, Y. C., & Kim, P. S. (2015). The best Hakwons top 7. Paju: Academy Press. [in Korean].
  • Kim, Y. C., Noel, G., & Jung, J. (2018). Shadow education as an emerging focus in worldwide curriculum studies. Curriculum Matters, 14, 8–30.
  • Kirby, P. (2016). Shadow schooling: private tuition and social mobility in the uk. London: The Sutton Trust.
  • Klafki, W. (2000). The significance of classical theories of Bildung for a contemporary concept of Allgemeinbildung. In I. Westbury, S. T. Hopmann, & K. Riquarts (Eds.), Teaching as a reflective practice (pp. 85–107). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • Klemm, K., & Klemm, A. (2010). Ausgaben für Nachhilfe: Teurer und unfairer Ausgleich für fehlende individuelle Förderung. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung.
  • Lather, P. (2006). Paradigm proliferation as a good thing to think with: Teaching research in education as a wild profusion. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 19(1), 35–57.
  • Lee, J. (2007). Two worlds of private tutoring: The prevalence and causes of after-school mathematics tutoring in Korea and the United States. Teachers College Record, 109(5), 1207–1234.
  • Lee, J., & Zhou, M. (2015). The Asian American achievement paradox. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
  • Lee, J., & Zhou, M. (2017). Why class matters less for Asia-American academic achievement. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 43(14), 2316–2330.
  • Lynch, K. (1989). The hidden curriculum: Reproduction in education, a reappraisal. New York, NY: The Falmer Press.
  • Majumdar, M. (2014). The shadow school system and new class divisions in India. London: Max Weber Stiftung.
  • Malewski, E. (Ed.). (2010). Curriculum studies: The next moment. New York, NY: Routledge.
  • Malik, M. A. (2017). Shadow education: Evolution, flaws and further development of the term. Social Sciences and Education Research Review, 4(1), 6–29.
  • Marimuthu, T., Singh, J. S., Ahmad, K., Lim, H. K., Mukherjee, H., Oman, S., … Leong, L. T. (1991). Extra-school instruction, social equity and educational quality. Singapore: International Development Research Centre.
  • Mawer, K. (2015). Casting new light on shadow education: Snapshots of juku variety. Contemporary Japan, 27(2), 131–148.
  • Maynes, M. J. (1985). Schooling in Western Europe: A social history. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
  • Melot, L. (2007). Le Marché du Soutien Scolaire [The market for schooling support]. Paris: Precepta. Retrieved from http://www.xerfi.fr/etudes/7SME04.pdf.
  • Mori, I., & Baker, D. (2010). The origin of universal shadow education: What the supplemental education phenomenon tells us about the postmodern institution of education. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(1), 36–48.
  • Nath, S. R. (2007). Remunerated supplementary tutoring in out-of-school study in rural Bangladesh (BRAC research report). Dhaka, Bangladesh: Research and Evaluation Division, BRAC.
  • Nath, S. R. (2008). Private supplementary tutoring among primary students in Bangladesh. Educational Studies, 34(1), 55–72.
  • Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2012). PISA 2009 Technical Report. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/50036771.pdf
  • Ozaki, M. (2015). A juku childhood: Children’s experiences in Juku attendance and its relation to their well-being in Japan ( Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Bath, Claverton Down, UK.
  • Pallegedara, A. (2011). Demand for private tuition classes under the free education policy: Evidence based on Sri Lanka. Munich: Munich personal RePEc archive. Retrieved from http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/31969/1/MPRA_paper_31969.pdf
  • Paramita, S. (2015). “We follow the private tutors not the teachers”: An ethnographic insight into educational practices among the students of an Indian city. International Journal of Research in Social Sciences, 4(4), 819–840.
  • Park, H., Buchmann, C., Choi, J., & Merry, J. J. (2016). Learning beyond the school walls: Trends and implications. Annual Review of Sociology, 42(1), 231–252.
  • Park, S., Lim, H., & Choi, H. (2015). “Gangnam Mom”: A qualitative study on the information behaviors of Korean helicopter mothers. iConference 2015 Proceedings. Retrieved from https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/73636/124_ready.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y.
  • Peppler, K. (2017). The SAGE encyclopedia of out-of-school learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
  • Pinar, W. F. (1994). Autobiography, politics, and sexuality: Essays in curriculum theory 1972–1992. New York, NY: Peter Lang.
  • Pinar, W. F. (2011). The character of curriculum studies: Bildung, currere, and the recurring question of the subject. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Pinar, W. F. (2014). International handbook of curriculum research. New York, NY: Routledge.
  • Pinar, W. F. (2015). Educational experience as lived: Knowledge, history, alterity. New York, NY: Routledge.
  • Pinar, W. F., & Grumet, M. R. (2015 [1976]). Toward a poor curriculum. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.
  • Pinar, W. F., Reynolds, W. M., Slattery, P., & Taubman, P. M. (1995). Understanding curriculum: An introduction to the study of historical and contemporary curriculum discourses. New York, NY: Peter Lang.
  • Poetter, T. S., & Googins, J. (2017). Was someone mean to you today?: The impact of standardization, corporatization, and high stakes testing on students, teachers, communities, schools, and democracy. Cincinnati, OH: Van-Griner Publishing.
  • Princeton Review. (2010). The Princeton review reports fourth quarter and full year 2009. Financial results. Retrieved from: http://www.princetonreview.com/release.cfm.
  • Ripley, A. (2013). The smartest kids in the world: And how they got that way. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.
  • Roesgaard, M. H. (2006). Japanese education and the cram school business: Functions, challenges and perspectives of the juku. Copen- hagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Press.
  • Safarzynska, K. (2011). Socio-economic determinants of demand for private tutoring. European Sociological Review, 15, 1–16.
  • Seth, M. J. (2002). Education fever: Society, politics, and the pursuit of schooling in South Korea. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
  • Smyth, E. (2008). The more, the better? Intensity of involvement in private tuition and examination performance. Educational Research and Evaluation, 14(5), 465−476.
  • Spivak, G. (1988). Can the subaltern speak? In P. Williams & L. Charisman (Eds.), Colonial discourse and postcolonial theory: A reader (pp. 66–111). New York, NY: Harvester/Wheatsheaf.
  • Spring, J. (2010). The politics of American education. New York, NY: Routledge.
  • Statistics Korea. (2016). The survey of private education expenses for elementary school to high school. Seoul: Author.
  • Stevenson, D. L., & Baker, D. P. (1992). Shadow education and allocation in formal schooling: Transition to university in Japan. American Journal of Sociology, 97(6), 1639–1657.
  • Sun, M., & Braeye, S. (2012). Comparing supplementary ethnic schools and the academic achievement of Chinese immigrant students in Quebec and Flanders. Diversité Urbaine, 12(1), 105–124.
  • Tan, C. (2017). Private supplementary tutoring and parentocracy in Singapore. Interchange, 48(4), 315–329.
  • Terhart, E. (1998). Changing concepts of curriculum: From “Bildung” to “learning” to “experience.” Developments in (West) Germany from the 1960s to 1990. In B. Gundem & S. Hopmann (Eds.), Didaktik and/or curriculum (pp. 107–125). New York, NY: Peter Lang.
  • Toyama-Bialke, C. (1997). Jugendliche sozialisation und familiär Einflüsse in Deutschland und Japan: eine empirische Untersuchung zu jugendlicher Alltagsstrucktur und elterlichen Erziehungspraktiken. (Ph. D. Dissertation). Hamburg: University of Hamburg.
  • Tseng, L. J. (1998). Private supplementary tutoring at the senior secondary level in Taiwan and Hong Kong ( MEd Dissertation). The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
  • United States Department of Education. (2007). State and local implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act: Volume I—Title I school choice, supplementary educational services, and student achievement: A report from the national longitudinal study of No Child Left Behind (NLS-NCLB). U.S. Department of Education, Jessup, MD: Education Publications Center.
  • Ventura, A., & Jang, S. (2010). Private tutoring through the internet: Globalization and offshoring. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(1), 59–68.
  • Watanabe, M. (2013). Juku: The stealth force of education and the deterioration of schools in Japan. North Charleston: Create Space Independent Publishing Platform.
  • Watanabe, M. (2014). Big doubts on the NY Times article: ‘Why do Americans stink at Math?’ Retrieved from http://jukuyobiko.blogspot.kr/2014/08/big-doubts-on-ny-times-article-why-do.html
  • Watson, L. (2008 November, 30–December, 4). Private expectations and public schooling: The growth of private tutoring in Australia. Conference of the Australian Association for Research in Education (AARE).
  • Weiss, H. B., Little, P. M. D., Bouffard, S. M., Deschenes, S. N., & Malone, H. J. (2009). The federal role in out-of-school learning: After-school, summer learning, and family involvement as critical learning supports. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Family Research Project.
  • Wiseman, A. W. (2013). Foreword. In J. Aurini, S. Davies, & J. Dierkes (Eds.), Out of the shadows: The global intensification of supplementary education (pp. xi–xiii). Bingley, UK: Emerald Books.
  • Yamamoto, Y., & Brinton, M. C. (2010). Cultural capital in East Asian educational systems: The case of Japan. Sociology of Education, 83(1), 67–83.
  • Yang, I., & Kim, B. C. (2010). A qualitative case study on the school life of middle school students who go to private educational institute. The Korea Educational Review, 16(3), 117–153. [in Korean]
  • Zhan, S., Bray, M., Wang, D., Lykins, C., & Kwo, O. (2013). The effectiveness of private tutoring: Students’ perceptions in comparison with mainstream schooling in Hong Kong. Asia Pacific Education Review, 14(1), 495–509.
  • Zhang, H., & Zhenyu, G. (2014). Curriculum studies in China: Retrospect and prospect. In W. F. Pinar (Ed.), International handbook of curriculum research (2nd ed., pp. 118–133). New York, NY: Routledge.
  • Zhang, W., & Bray, M. (2017). Micro-neoliberalism in China: Public–Private interactions at the confluence of mainstream and shadow education. Journal of Education Policy, 32, 63–81.
  • Zhang, Y. (2013). Does private tutoring improve students’ National College entrance exam performance? A case study from Jinan, China. Economics of Education Review, 32(c), 1–28.
  • Zhou, M., & Kim, S. (2006). Community forces, social capital, and educational achievement: The case of supplementary education in the Chinese and Korean immigrant communities. Harvard Educational Review, 76(1), 1–29.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.