It’s easier to kill a baby to save oneself than a fat man to save other people: the effect of moral dilemma and age on Russian-English bilinguals’ moral reasoning

References

• Armon, C., and T. L. Dawson. 1997. “Developmental Trajectories in Moral Reasoning Across the Life Span.” Journal of Moral Education 26: 433–453. doi: 10.1080/0305724970260404
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Białek, M., and J. Fugelsang. 2019. “No Evidence for Decreased Foreign Language Effect in Highly Proficient and Acculturated Bilinguals: a Commentary on Čavar and Tytus (2018).” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 40: 679–686. doi: 10.1080/01434632.2018.1547072
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Białek, M., M. Paruzel-Czachura, and B. Gawronski. 2019. “Foreign Language Effects on Moral Dilemma Judgments: An Analysis Using the CNI Model.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 85: 103855. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2019.103855
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brouwer, S. 2019. “The Auditory Foreign-Language Effect of Moral Decision Making in Highly Proficient Bilinguals.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 40: 865–878. doi: 10.1080/01434632.2019.1585863
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brouwer, S. 2020. “The Interplay Between Emotion and Modality in the Foreign-Language Effect on Moral Decision Making.” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1–8. doi:10.1017/S136672892000022X.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caldwell-Harris, C. L. 2015. “Emotionality Differences Between a Native and Foreign Language: Implications for Everyday Life.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 24: 214–219. doi: 10.1177/0963721414566268
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casali, G. L. 2011. “Developing a Multidimensional Scale for Ethical Decision Making.” Journal of Business Ethics 104: 485–497. doi: 10.1007/s10551-011-0923-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Čavar, F., and A. E. Tytus. 2018. “Moral Judgement and Foreign Language Effect: When the Foreign Language Becomes the Second Language.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 39: 17–28. doi: 10.1080/01434632.2017.1304397
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, Y.-L., X. Gu, J. C.-K. Ng, and C.-S. Tse. 2016. “Effects of Dilemma Type, Language, and Emotion Arousal on Utilitarian vs Deontological Choice to Moral Dilemmas in Chinese–English Bilinguals.” Asian Journal of Social Psychology 19: 55–65. doi: 10.1111/ajsp.12123
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cipolletti, H., S. McFarlane, and C. Weissglass. 2016. “The Moral Foreign-Language Effect.” Philosophical Psychology 29: 23–40. doi: 10.1080/09515089.2014.993063
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corey, J. D., S. Hayakawa, A. Foucart, M. Aparici, J. Botella, A. Costa, and B. Keysar. 2017. “Our Moral Choices are Foreign to Us.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 43: 1109–1128.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costa, A., A. Foucart, S. Hayakawa, M. Aparici, J. Apesteguia, J. Heafner, and B. Keysar. 2014. “Your Morals Depend on Language.” PloS One 9: e94842. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0094842
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cushman, F., and J. D. Greene. 2012. “Finding Faults: How Moral Dilemmas Illuminate Cognitive Structure.” Social Neuroscience 7: 269–279. doi: 10.1080/17470919.2011.614000
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cycowicz, Y. M., D. Friedman, and M. Rothstein. 1997. “Picture Naming by Young Children: Norms for Name Agreement, Familiarity, and Visual Complexity.” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 65: 171–237. doi: 10.1006/jecp.1996.2356
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dewaele, J.-M. 2008. “The Emotional Weight of I Love you in Multilinguals’ Languages.” Journal of Pragmatics 40: 1753–1780. doi: 10.1016/j.pragma.2008.03.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dewaele, J.-M. 2016. “Thirty Shades of Offensiveness: L1 and LX English Users’ Understanding, Perception and Self-Reported use of Negative Emotion-Laden Words.” Journal of Pragmatics 94: 112–127. doi: 10.1016/j.pragma.2016.01.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Driver, M. Y. 2020. “Switching Codes and Shifting Morals: how Code-Switching and Emotion Affect Moral Judgment.” International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 1–17.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dudschig, C., I. de la Vega, and B. Kaup. 2014. “Embodiment and Second-Language: Automatic Activation of Motor Responses During Processing Spatially Associated L2 Words and Emotion L2 Words in a Vertical Stroop Paradigm.” Brain and Language 132: 14–21. doi: 10.1016/j.bandl.2014.02.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dylman, A. S., and M. F. Champoux-Larsson. 2020. “It's (not) all Greek to me: Boundaries of the Foreign Language Effect.” Cognition 196: 104148. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104148
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foot, P. 1978. The Problem of Abortion and the Doctrine of the Double Effect in Virtues and Vices. Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Geipel, J., C. Hadjichristidis, and L. Surian. 2015. “The Foreign Language Effect on Moral Judgment: The Role of Emotions and Norms.” PloS One 10: e0131529. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0131529
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geipel, J., C. Hadjichristidis, and L. Surian. 2016. “Foreign Language Affects the Contribution of Intentions and Outcomes to Moral Judgment.” Cognition 154: 34–39. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2016.05.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene, J. D., F. A. Cushman, L. E. Stewart, K. Lowenberg, L. E. Nystrom, and J. D. Cohen. 2009. “Pushing Moral Buttons: The Interaction Between Personal Force and Intention in Moral Judgment.” Cognition 111: 364–371. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2009.02.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grosjean, F. 1998. “Studying Bilinguals: Methodological and Conceptual Issues.” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 1: 131–149. doi: 10.1017/S136672899800025X
   Google Scholar
• Harris, C. L., A. Ayçíçeğí, and J. B. Gleason. 2003. “Taboo Words and Reprimands Elicit Greater Autonomic Reactivity in a First Language Than in a Second Language.” Applied Psycholinguistics 24: 561–579. doi: 10.1017/S0142716403000286
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayakawa, S., D. Tannenbaum, A. Costa, J. D. Corey, and B. Keysar. 2017. “Thinking More or Feeling Less? Explaining the Foreign-Language Effect on Moral Judgment.” Psychological Science 28: 1387–1397. doi: 10.1177/0956797617720944
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Im Shin, H., and J. Kim. 2017. “Foreign Language Effect and Psychological Distance.” Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 46: 1339–1352. doi: 10.1007/s10936-017-9498-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahane, G. 2015. “Sidetracked by Trolleys: Why Sacrificial Moral Dilemmas Tell us Little (or Nothing) About Utilitarian Judgment.” Social Neuroscience 10: 551–560. doi: 10.1080/17470919.2015.1023400
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahane, G., J. A. Everett, B. D. Earp, M. Farias, and J. Savulescu. 2015. “‘Utilitarian’ Judgments in Sacrificial Moral Dilemmas do not Reflect Impartial Concern for the Greater Good.” Cognition 134: 193–209. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2014.10.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kant, I. 1959. Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals. Translated by L. W. Beck. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill. ( Original work published 1785).
   Google Scholar
• Kazanas, S. A., and J. Altarriba. 2016. “Emotion Word Processing: Effects of Word Type and Valence in Spanish–English Bilinguals.” Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 45: 395–406. doi: 10.1007/s10936-015-9357-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keysar, B., S. L. Hayakawa, and S. G. An. 2012. “The Foreign-Language Effect: Thinking in a Foreign Tongue Reduces Decision Biases.” Psychological Science 23: 661–668. doi: 10.1177/0956797611432178
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krautz, A. E., and F. Čavar. 2019. “Moral Foreign Language Effect–Claims we Have Never Made’(Response to Commentary by Białek and Fugelsang, in Press).” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 40: 687–690. doi: 10.1080/01434632.2018.1547074
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lotto, L., A. Manfrinati, and M. Sarlo. 2013. “A new set of Moral Dilemmas: Norms for Moral Acceptability, Decision Times, and Emotional Salience.” Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 27: 57–65. doi: 10.1002/bdm.1782
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarlane, S., and H. C. Perez. 2020. “Some Challenges for Research on Emotion and Moral Judgment: The Moral Foreign-Language Effect as a Case Study.” Diametros 17: 1–16. doi: 10.33392/diam.1476
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McNair, S., Y. Okan, C. Hadjichristidis, and W. B. de Bruin. 2019. “Age Differences in Moral Judgment: Older Adults are More Deontological Than Younger Adults.” Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 32: 47–60. doi: 10.1002/bdm.2086
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mill, J. S. 1998. Utilitarianism. Edited by R. Crisp. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ( Original work published 1861).
   Google Scholar
• Miozzo, M., E. Navarrete, M. Ongis, E. Mello, V. Girotto, and F. Peressotti. 2020. “Foreign Language Effect in Decision-Making: How Foreign is it?” . Cognition 199: 104245. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104245
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore, A. B., B. Clark, and M. J. Kane. 2008. “Who Shalt not Kill? Individual Differences in Working Memory Capacity, Executive Control, and Moral Judgment.” Psychological Science 19: 549–557. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02122.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muda, R., P. Niszczota, M. Białek, and P. Conway. 2018. “Reading Dilemmas in a Foreign Language Reduces Both Deontological and Utilitarian Response Tendencies.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 44: 321–326.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muda, R., D. Pieńkosz, K. B. Francis, and M. Białek. 2020. “The Moral Foreign Language Effect is Stable Across Presentation Modalities.” Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. doi:10.1177/1747021820935072.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pan, P., and C. Patel. 2018. “The Influence of Native Versus Foreign Language on Chinese Subjects’ Aggressive Financial Reporting Judgments.” Journal of Business Ethics 150 (3): 863–878. doi: 10.1007/s10551-016-3165-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pavlenko, A., and V. Driagina. 2007. “Russian Emotion Vocabulary in American Learners’ Narratives.” Modern Language Journal 91: 213–234. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4781.2007.00541.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters, E., T. M. Hess, D. Västfjäll, and C. Auman. 2007. “Adult age Differences in Dual Information Processes: Implications for the Role of Affective and Deliberative Processes in Older Adults’ Decision Making.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 2: 1–23. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00025.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puntoni, S., B. de Langhe, and S. van Osselaer. 2009. “ Bilingualism and the Emotional Intensity of Advertising Language.” Journal of Consumer Research 35: 1012–1025. doi: 10.1086/595022
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reynolds, S. J. 2006. “Moral Awareness and Ethical Predispositions: Investigating the Role of Individual Differences in the Recognition of Moral Issues.” Journal of Applied Psychology 91: 233. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.91.1.233
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sachdeva, S., R. Iliev, H. Ekhtiari, and M. Dehghani. 2015. “The Role of Self-Sacrifice in Moral Dilemmas.” PloS One 10 (6): e0127409. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0127409
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanchez, M. J., and D. J. Self. 1995. “Gender Bias and Moral Decision Making: The Moral Orientations of Justice and Care.” Journal of Medical Humanities 16: 39–53. doi: 10.1007/BF02276819
   Google Scholar
• Suessenbach, F., and A. B. Moore. 2015. “Individual Differences in the Explicit Power Motive Predict “Utilitarian” Choices in Moral Dilemmas, Especially When This Choice is Self-Beneficial.” Personality and Individual Differences 86: 297–302. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2015.06.031
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomson, J. J. 1985. “Double Effect, Triple Effect and the Trolley Problem: Squaring the Circle in Looping Cases.” Yale Law Journal 94: 1395–1415. doi: 10.2307/796133
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vallet, G. T. 2015. “Embodied Cognition of Aging.” Frontiers in Psychology 6: 463. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00463
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vives, M. L., M. Aparici, and A. Costa. 2018. “The Limits of the Foreign Language Effect on Decision-Making: The Case of the Outcome Bias and the Representativeness Heuristic.” PloS One 13: e0203528. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0203528
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar