Dividing attention in the classroom reduces exam performance

References

• Brown, J. (1958). Some tests of the decay theory of immediate memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 10, 12–21. doi:10.1080/17470215808416249
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter, S. P., Greenberg, K., & Walker, M. (2016). The impact of computer usage on academic performance: Evidence from a randomized trial at the United States Military Academy. Economics of Education Review, 56, 118–132.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cherry, E. C. (1953). Some experiments on the recognition of speech, with one and two ears. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 25, 975–979. doi:10.1121/1.1907229
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunbar, R. I. M., & Sutcliffe, A. G. (2013). Social complexity and intelligence In J. Vonk & T. K. Shackelford (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of comparative evolutionary psychology (pp. 102–117). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fried, C. B. (2008). In-class laptop use and its effects on student learning. Computers & Education, 50, 906–914. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2006.09.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glass, A. L. (2009). The effect of distributed questioning with varied examples on exam performance on inference questions. Educational Psychology, 29, 831–848. doi:10.1080/01443410903310674
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glass, A. L. (2016). Cognition: A neuroscience approach. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Glass, A. L., Brill, G., & Ingate, M. (2008). Combined online and in- class pre-testing improves exam performance in general psychology. Educational Psychology, 28, 483–503. doi:10.1080/01443410701777280
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glass, A. L., Ingate, M., & Sinha, N. (2013). The effect of a final exam on long-term retention. Journal of General Psychology, 140, 224–241. doi:10.1080/00221309.2013.797379
   Google Scholar
• Glass, A. L., & Sinha, N. (2013). Multiple-choice questioning is an efficient instructional methodology that may be widely implemented in academic courses to improve exam performance. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22, 471–477. doi:10.1177/0963721413495870
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grace-Martin, M., & Gay, G. (2001). Web browsing, mobile computing, and academic performance. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 4, 95–107.
   Google Scholar
• Hembrooke, H., & Gay, G. (2003). The laptop and the lecture: The effects of multitasking in learning environments. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 15, 46–64. doi:10.1007/BF02940852
   Google Scholar
• Jacobsen W. C., & Forste, R. (2011). The wired generation: Academic and social outcomes of electronic media use among university students. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 14, 275–280. doi:10.1089/cyber.2010.0135
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jersild, A. T. (1927). Mental set and shift. Archives of Psychology, 14, 81.
   Google Scholar
• Junco, R. (2012). In-class multitasking and academic performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 2236–2243. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.06.031
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. L., III. (2007). Repeated retrieval during learning is the key to long-term retention. Journal of Memory and Language, 57, 151–162. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2006.09.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. L., III. (2008). The critical importance of retrieval for learning. Science, 319, 966–968. doi:10.1126/science.1152408
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keefe, T. J. (2003). Using technology to enhance a course: The importance of interaction. EDUCAUSE Quarterly, 26, 24–34.
   Google Scholar
• Kraushaar, J. M., & Novak, D. C. (2010). Examining the affects [sic] of student multitasking with laptops during the lecture. Journal of Information Systems Education, 21, 241–251.
   Google Scholar
• Kuhl, P. K., Tsao, F.-M., & Liu, H.-M. (2003). Foreign-language experience in infancy: Effects of short-term exposure and social interaction on phonetic learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 100, 9096–9101.
   Google Scholar
• McDermott, K. B., Agarwal, P. K., D’Antonio, L., Roediger, H. L., III, & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Both multiple-choice and short-answer quizzes enhance later exam performance in middle and high school classes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 20, 3–21. doi:10.1037/xap0000004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Modigliani, V. (1980). Immediate rehearsal and initial retention interval in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6, 241–253. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.6.3.241
   Google Scholar
• Müller, G. E., & Pilzecker, A. (1900). Experimentelle Beitrage zur Lehre vom Gedachtnis. Zeitung Psychologische Erganzungsband, 1, 1–300.
   Google Scholar
• Mulligan, N. W., & Picklesimer, M. (2016). Short-term retention of individual verbal items. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 42, 938–950. doi:10.1037/xlm0000227
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nussenbaum, K., & Amso, D. (2016). An attentional Goldilocks effect: An optimal amount of social interactivity promotes word learning from video. Journal of Cognition and Development, 17, 30–40. doi:10.1080/15248372.2015.1034316
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ophir, E., Nass, C., & Wagner, A. D. (2009). Cognitive control in media multitaskers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 106, 15583–15587. doi:10.1073/pnas.0903620106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Packard, M. G., & McGaugh, J. L. (1996). Inactivation of hippocampus or caudate nucleus with lidocaine differentially affects expression of place versus response learning. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 65, 65–72. doi:10.1006/nlme.1996.0007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson, L. R., & Peterson, M. J. (1959). Short term retention of individual items. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 193–198. doi:10.1037/h0049234
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Potter, M. C. (1975). Meaning in visual search. Science, 187, 965–966. doi:10.1126/science.1145183
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Potter, M. C. (1976). Short-term conceptual memory for pictures. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 2, 509–522. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.2.5.509
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ravizza, S. M., Hambrick, D. Z., & Fenn, K. M. (2014). Nonacademic Internet use in the classroom is negatively related to classroom learning regardless of intellectual ability. Computers & Education, 78, 109–114. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2014.05.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ravizza, S. R., Uitvlugt, M. G., & Fenn, K. M. (2017). Logged in and zoned out: How laptop internet use impacts classroom learning. Psychological Science, 28, 171–180. doi:10.1177/0956797616677314
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Risko, E. F., Buchanan, D., Medimorec, S., & Kingstone, A. (2013). Every day attention: Mind wandering and computer use during lectures. Computers & Education, 68, 275–283. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2013.05.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roediger, H. L., III, Agarwal, P. K., McDaniel, M. A., & McDermott, K. B. (2011). Processing bottlenecks in dual-task performance: Structural limitation or strategic postponement? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 17, 382–395. doi:10.1037/a0026252
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers, R. D., & Monsell, S. (1995). Costs of a predictable switch between simple cognitive tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124, 207–231. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.124.2.207
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roseberry, S., Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2014). Skype me! Socially contingent interactions help toddlers learn language, Child Development, 85, 956–970. doi:10.1111/cdev.12166
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rundus, D., & Atkinson, R. C. (1970). Rehearsal processes in free recall: A procedure for direct observation. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 99–105. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(70)80015-9
   Google Scholar
• Ruthruff, E., Pashler, H. E., & Klaassen, A. (2001). Processing bottlenecks in dual-task performance: Structural limitation or strategic postponement? Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8, 73–80. doi:10.3758/BF03196141
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sana, F., Weston, T., & Cepeda, N. (2013). Laptop multitasking hinders classroom learning for both users and nearby peers. Computers & Education, 62, 24–31. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.10.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schumacher, E. H., Seymour, T. L., Glass, J. M., Fencsik, D. E., Lauber, E. J., Kieras, D. E., & Meyer, D. E. (2001). Virtually perfect time sharing in dual-task performance: Uncorking the central cognitive bottleneck. Psychological Science, 12, 101–108. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00318
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spector, A., & Biederman, I. (1976). Mental set and mental shift revisited. American Journal of Psychology, 89, 669–679. doi:10.2307/1421465
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wammes, J. D., & Smilek, D. (2017). Examining the influence of lecture format on degree of mind wandering. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 6, 173–184.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood, N. L., & Cowan, N. (1995). The cocktail party phenomenon revisited: Attention and memory in the classic selective listening procedure of Cherry (1953). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124, 243–262. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.124.3.243
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woolley, D. G., Laeremans, A., Gantois, I., Mantini, D., Vermaercke, B., Op de Beeck, H. P., … Rudi D’Hooge, D. (2013). Homologous involvement of striatum and prefrontal cortex in rodent and human water maze learning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110, 3131–3136. doi:10.1073/pnas.1217832110
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yin, H. H., & Knowlton, B. J. (2006). The role of the basal ganglia in habit formation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7, 464–476. doi:10.1038/nrn1919
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziessler, M., & Nattkemper, D. (2001). Learning of event sequences is based on response-effect learning: Further evidence from a serial reaction task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 27, 595–613. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.27.3.595
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar