A systematic review – handwritten examinations are becoming outdated, is it time to change to typed examinations in our assessment policy?

References

• Arnhold, N., and R. M. Bassett. 2021. Steering Tertiary Education: Toward Resilient Systems that Deliver for All (English). Washington, DC: World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/394931632506279551/Steering-Tertiary-Education-Toward-Resilient-Systems-that-Deliver-for-All
   Google Scholar
• Augustine-Adams, K., S. B. Hendrix, and J. R. Rasband. 2001. “Pen or Printer: Can Students Afford to Handwrite Their Exams?” Journal of Legal Education 51 (1): 118–129. https://ssrn.com/abstract=961638.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barkaoui, K., and I. Knouzi. 2018. “The Effects of Writing Mode and Computer Ability on L2 Test-Takers’ Essay Characteristics and Scores.” Assessing Writing 36: 19–31. doi:10.1016/j.asw.2018.02.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett, M. E., A. B. Swan, A. Mamikonian, I. Ghajoyan, O. Kramarova, and R. J. Youmans. 2014. “Technology in Note Taking and Assessment: The Effects of Congruence on Student Performance.” International Journal of Instruction 7 (1): 49–58.
   Google Scholar
• Berggren, B., A. Fili, and O. Nordberg. 2015. “Digital Examination in Higher education - Experiences from Three Different Perspectives.” International Journal of Education and Development Using Information and Communication Technology (IJEDICT) 11 (3): 100–108. http://ijedict.dec.uwi.edu/viewarticle.php?id=2037.
   Google Scholar
• Brunfaut, T., L. Harding, and A. O. Batty. 2018. “Going Online: The Effect of Mode of Delivery on Performances and Perceptions on an English L2 Writing Test Suite.” Assessing Writing 36: 3–18. doi:10.1016/j.asw.2018.02.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burkhardt, H., and D. Pead. 2003. “Computer Based Assessment – a Platform for Better Tests?” In Whither Assessment?, edited by C. Richardson, 133–148. London, UK: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority.
   Google Scholar
• Butler-Henderson, K., and J. Crawford. 2020. “A Systematic Review of Online Examinations: A Pedagogical Innovation for Scalable Authentication and Integrity.” Computers & Education 159: 104024. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2020.104024.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cassidy, C. 2023. Australian Universities to Return to ‘Pen and Paper’ Exams after Students Caught Using AI to Write Essays. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/jan/10/universities-to-return-to-pen-and-paper-exams-after-students-caught-using-ai-to-write-essays
   Google Scholar
• Cavendish, C. 2023. ChatGPT Will Force School Exams Out of the Dark Ages. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/41243091-d8d7-4b74-9ad1-5341c16c869f
   Google Scholar
• Ceka, B., and A. J. O’Geen. 2019. “Evaluating Student Performance on Computer-Based versus Handwritten Exams: Evidence from a Field Experiment in the Classroom.” PS: Political Science & Politics 52 (4): 757–762. doi:10.1017/S104909651900091X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, C. K. Y, and S. W. Chen. 2022. “Students’ Perceptions on the Recognition of Holistic Competency Achievement: A Systemic Mixed Review.” Educational Research Review 35: 100431. doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2021.100431.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, C. K. Y, and W. Hu. 2023. Students’ Voices on Generative AI: Perceptions, Benefits, and Challenges in Higher Education. https://arxiv.org/abs/2305.00290
   Google Scholar
• Chan, C. K. Y, and L. Y. Y. Luk. 2021. “Development and Validation of an Instrument Measuring Undergraduate Students’ Perceived Holistic Competencies.” Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education 46 (3): 467–482. doi:10.1080/02602938.2020.1784392.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, C. K. Y, and L. H. Y. Tsi. 2023. “The AI Revolution in Education: Will AI Replace or Assist Teachers in Higher Education?.” [Preprint]. arXiv. https://arxiv.org/abs/2305.01185.
   Google Scholar
• Chan, C. K. Y, and N. C. J. Yeung. 2021. “To Assess or Not to Assess Holistic Competencies – Student Perspectives in Hong Kong.” Studies in Educational Evaluation 68: 100984. doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2021.100984.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, S., S. Bax, and C. Weir. 2018. “Researching the Comparability of Paper-Based and Computer-Based Delivery in a High-Stakes Writing Test.” Assessing Writing 36: 32–48. doi:10.1016/j.asw.2018.03.008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheung, Y. L. 2016. “A Comparative Study of Paper-and-Pen versus Computer-Delivered Assessment Modes on Students’ Writing Quality: A Singapore Study.” The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher 25 (1): 23–33. doi:10.1007/s40299-015-0229-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connelly, V., J. E. Dockrell, and J. Barnett. 2005. “The Slow Handwriting of Undergraduate Students Constrains Overall Performance in Exam Essays.” Educational Psychology 25 (1): 99–107. doi:10.1080/0144341042000294912.
   Google Scholar
• Deutsch, T., K. Herrmann, T. Frese, and H. Sandholzer. 2012. “Implementing Computer-Based Assessment – a Web-Based Mock Examination Changes Attitudes.” Computers & Education 58 (4): 1068–1075. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.11.013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Escudier, M. P., T. J. Newton, M. J. Cox, P. A. Reynolds, and E. W. Odell. 2011. “University Students’ Attainment and Perceptions of Computer Delivered Assessment; a Comparison between Computer-Based and Traditional Tests in a “High-Stakes” Examination.” Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 27 (5): 440–447. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2011.00409.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fluck, A. E. 2019. “An International Review of eExam Technologies and Impact.” Computers & Education 132: 1–15. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2018.12.008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fluck, A., D. Pullen, and C. Harper. 2009. “Case Study of a Computer Based Examination System.” Australasian Journal of Educational Technology 25 (4): 509–523. doi:10.14742/ajet.1126.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galanek, J. D., D. C. Gierdowski, and D. C. Brooks. 2018. “ECAR Study of Undergraduate Students and Information Technology.” Research Report. Louisville, CO: ECAR, October 2018. https://www.educause.edu/ecar/research-publications/ecar-study-of-undergraduate-students-and-information-technology/2018/introduction-and-key-findings.
   Google Scholar
• Gardner, J., M. O'Leary, and L. Yuan. 2021. “Artificial Intelligence in Educational Assessment: “Breakthrough? Or Buncombe and Ballyhoo?” Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 37 (5): 1207–1216. doi:10.1111/jcal.12577.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gipps, C. V. 1994. Beyond Testing: Towards a Theory of Educational Assessment. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Greifeneder, R., A. Alt, K. Bottenberg, T. Seele, S. Zelt, and D. Wagener. 2010. “On Writing Legibly: Processing Fluency Systematically Biases Evaluations of Handwritten Material.” Social Psychological and Personality Science 1 (3): 230–237. doi:10.1177/1948550610368434.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaudiot, J. L., and H. Kasahara. 2020. “Computer Education in the Age of COVID-19.” Computer Magazine 53 (10): 114–118. doi:10.1109/MC.2020.3011277.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hillier, M. 2014. The Very Idea of e-Exams: Student (Pre)conceptions. Rhetoric and Reality: Critical Perspective on Educational Technology. ascilite 2014 Proceedings. https://ascilite.org/conferences/dunedin2014/proceedings/index.html
   Google Scholar
• Hillier, M. 2015. “To Type or Handwrite: Student’s Experience across Six e-Exam Trials.” In Proceedings of the ASCILITE Conference, edited by T. Reiners, B. R. von Konsky, D. Gibson, V. Chang, L. Irving, K. Clarke, 143–154. Perth, Australia. http://transformingexams.com/files/Hillier_2015_ascilite_fp.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Hillier, M., and A. Fluck. 2013. “Arguing Again for e-Exams in High Stakes Examinations.” In Electric Dreams: 30th ASCILITE Conference Proceedings, edited by H. Carter, M. Gosper, and J. Hedberg, 385–396. Macquarie University. https://www.ascilite.org/conferences/sydney13/program/papers.html.
   Google Scholar
• Hillier, M., and A. Fluck. 2017. “Transforming Exams – How IT Works for BYOD e-Exams.” In Me, us, IT! Proceedings ASCILITE2017: 34th International Conference on Innovation, Practice and Research in the Use of Educational Technologies in Tertiary Education, edited by H. Partridge, K. Davis, and J. Thomas,100–105. https://2017conference.ascilite.org/program/conference-proceedings/.
   Google Scholar
• Hillier, M. G., and S. O’Donnell. 2018. “Do-It-Yourself e-Exams.” In ASCILITE 2018 Conference Proceedings - Open Oceans: Learning without Borders. 35th International Conference of Innovation, Practice and Research in the Use of Educational Technologies in Tertiary Education, edited by M. Campbell, J. Willems, C. Adachi, D. Blake, I. Doherty, S. Krishnan, S. Macfarlane, L. Ngo, M. S. Palmer, L. Riddell, I. Story, H. Suri, and J. Tai, 121–130. https://2018conference.ascilite.org/conference-proceedings/.
   Google Scholar
• Hillier, M., and N. Lyon. 2019a. “Student Experiences with a Bring Your Own Laptop e-Exam System in Pre-University College.” In Empowering Learners for Life in the Digital Age. OCCE 2018. IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology, edited by D. Passey, R. Bottino, C. Lewin, and E. Sanchez, Vol. 524, 253–263. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-23513-0_25.
   Google Scholar
• Hillier, M., and N. Lyon. 2019b. “Writing e-Exams in Pre-University College.” In Empowering Learners for Life in the Digital Age. OCCE 2018. IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology, edited by D. Passey, R. Bottino, C. Lewin, and E. Sanchez, Vol. 524, 264–274. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-23513-0_26.
   Google Scholar
• Hong, Q. N., P. Pluye, S. Fàbregues, G. Bartlett, F. Boardman, M. Cargo, P. Dagenais, et al. 2019. “Improving the Content Validity of the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool: A Modified e-Delphi Study.” Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 111: 49–59.e1. doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2019.03.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ji, Y. 2017. “Score Equivalence between Paper-Based and Computer-Based College Students’ English Writing.” In Proceedings of the 2017 2nd International Conference on Education, Management Science and Economics (CEMSE 2017), edited by T. Hee and J. Liu, 194–196. Atlantis Press. doi:10.2991/icemse-17.2017.48.
   Google Scholar
• Jin, Y., and M. Yan. 2017. “Computer Literacy and the Construct Validity of a High-Stakes Computer-Based Writing Assessment.” Language Assessment Quarterly 14 (2): 101–119. doi:10.1080/15434303.2016.1261293.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalogeropoulos, N., I. Tzigounakis, E. A. Pavlatou, and A. G. Boudouvis. 2013. “Computer-Based Assessment of Student Performance in Programming Courses.” Computer Applications in Engineering Education 21 (4): 671–683. doi:10.1002/cae.20512.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, H. R., M. Bowles, X. Yan, and S. J. Chung. 2018. “Examining the Comparability between Paper- and Computer-Based Versions of an Integrated Writing Placement Test.” Assessing Writing 36: 49–62. doi:10.1016/j.asw.2018.03.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kroehne, U., S. Buerger, C. Hahnel, and F. Goldhammer. 2019. “Construct Equivalence of PISA Reading Comprehension Measured with Paper-Based and Computer-Based Assessments.” Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice 38 (3): 97–111. doi:10.1111/emip.12280.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuikka, M., M. Kitola, and M. Laakso. 2014. “Challenges When Introducing Electronic Exam.” Research in Learning Technology 22. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/155669/. doi:10.3402/rlt.v22.22817.
   Google Scholar
• Küppers, B., T. Eifert, M. Politze, and U. Schroeder. 2018. “e-Assessment behind the Scenes: Common Perception of e-Assessment and How We See It Nowadays.” In Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Computer Support Education – Volume 1, edited by B. M. McLaren, R. Reilly, S. Zvacek, and J. Uhomoibhi, 285–291. Science and Technology Publications. doi:10.5220/0006788402850291.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, Y.-J. 2002. “A Comparison of Composing Processes and Written Products in Timed-Essay Tests across Paper-and-Pencil and Computer Modes.” Assessing Writing 8 (2): 135–157. doi:10.1016/S1075-2935(03)00003-5.
   Google Scholar
• Lim, E. C. H., B. K. C. Ong, E. P. V. Wilder-Smith, and R. C. S. Seet. 2006. “Computer-Based versus Pen-and-Paper Testing: Students’ Perception.” Annals of the Academy of Medicine, Singapore 35 (9): 599–603. https://www.annals.edu.sg/35VolNo9Sep2006.html. doi:10.47102/annals-acadmedsg.V35N9p599.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Llamas-Nistal, M., M. J. Fernández-Iglesias, J. González-Tato, and F. A. Mikic-Fonte. 2013. “Blended e-Assessment: Migrating Classical Exams to the Digital World.” Computers & Education 62: 72–87. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.10.021.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lovett, B. J., L. J. Lewandowski, C. Berger, and R. A. Gathje. 2010. “Effects of Response Mode and Time Allotment on College Students’ Writing.” Journal of College Reading and Learning 40 (2): 64–79. doi:10.1080/10790195.2010.10850331.
   Google Scholar
• Luo, J., and C. K. Y. Chan. 2023. “Conceptualising Evaluative Judgement in the Context of Holistic Competency Development: Results of a Delphi Study.” Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education 48 (4): 513–528. doi:10.1080/02602938.2022.2088690.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mogey, N., and A. Fluck. 2015. “Factors Influencing Student Preference When Comparing Handwriting and Typing for Essay Style Examinations.” British Journal of Educational Technology 46 (4): 793–802. doi:10.1111/bjet.12171.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mogey, N., and J. Hartley. 2013. “To Write or Type? The Effects of Handwriting and Word-Processing on the Written Style of Examination Essays.” Innovations in Education and Teaching International 50 (1): 85–93. doi:10.1080/14703297.2012.748334.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mogey, N., J. Paterson, J. Burk, and M. Purcell. 2010. “Typing Compared with Handwriting for Essay Examinations at University: Letting the Students Choose.” ALT-J 18 (1): 29–47. doi:10.1080/09687761003657580.
   Google Scholar
• Pagram, J., M. Cooper, H. Jin, and A. Campbell. 2018. “Tales from the Exam Room: Trialing an e-Exam System for Computer Education and Design and Technology Students.” Education Sciences 8 (4): 188–198. doi:10.3390/educsci8040188.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patronis, M. 2016. “The Effect of Using Mobile Devices on Students’ Performance in Writing.” In Handbook of Research on Mobile Devices and Applications in Higher Education Settings, edited by L. Briz-Ponce, J. A. Juanes-Méndez, and F. García-Peñalvo, 250–270. IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-0256-2.ch011
   Google Scholar
• Patronis, M., F. F. Ishtaiwa-Dweikat, M. Al Awad, and I. M. Aburezeq. 2019. “Attitudes and Perceptions towards Summative e-Assessment for Free-Text Responses: A Case Study of a UAE University.” International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Education 15 (1): 13–28. doi:10.4018/IJICTE.2019010102.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petticrew, M., and H. Roberts. 2006. Systematic Reviews in the Social Sciences: A Practical Guide. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Pitcher, N., J. Goldfinch, and C. Beevers. 2002. “Aspects of Computer-Based Assessment in Mathematics.” Active Learning in Higher Education 3 (2): 159–176. doi:10.1177/1469787402003002005.
   Google Scholar
• Rytkönen, A., and L. Myyry. 2014. “Student Experiences on Taking Electronic Exams at the University of Helsinki.” In Proceedings of EdMedia 2014 – World Conference on Educational Media and Technology, edited by J. Viteli and M. Leikomaa, 2114–2121. Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/147766/.
   Google Scholar
• Sindre, G., and A. Vegendla. 2015. “E-Exams versus Paper Exams: A Comparative Analysis of Cheating-Related Security Threats and Countermeasures.” Norwegian Information Security Conference (NISK 2015).
   Google Scholar
• Smolinsky, L., B. D. Marx, G. Olafsson, and Y. A. Ma. 2020. “Computer-Based and Paper-and-Pencil Tests: A Study in Calculus for STEM Majors.” Journal of Educational Computing Research 58 (7): 1256–1278. doi:10.1177/0735633120930235.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Summers, J., and F. Catarro. 2003. “Assessment of Handwriting Speed and Factors Influencing Written Output of University Students in Examinations.” Australian Occupational Therapy Journal 50 (3): 148–157. doi:10.1046/j.1440-1630.2003.00310.x.
   Google Scholar
• Tella, A., and M. T. Bashorun. 2012. “Attitude of Undergraduate Students towards Computer-Based Test (CBT): a Case Study of the University of Ilorin, Nigeria.” International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Education 8 (2): 33–45. doi:10.4018/jicte.2012040103.
   Google Scholar
• Truell, A. D., M. W. Alexander, and R. E. Davis. 2004. “Comparing Postsecondary Marketing Student Performance on Computer-Based and Handwritten Essay Tests.” Journal of Career and Technical Education 20 (2): 69–78. doi:10.21061/jcte.v20i2.637.
   Google Scholar
• Weigelt-Marom, H., and N. Weintraub. 2018. “Keyboarding versus Handwriting Speed of Higher Education Students with and without Learning Disabilities: Does Touch-Typing Assist in Narrowing the Gap?” Computers & Education 117: 132–140. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2017.10.008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whithaus, C., S. B. Harrison, and J. Midyette. 2008. “Keyboarding Compared with Handwriting on a High-Stakes Writing Assessment: Student Choice of Composing Medium, Raters’ Perceptions, and Text Quality.” Assessing Writing 13 (1): 4–25. doi:10.1016/j.asw.2008.03.001.
   Google Scholar
• Wolfe, E. W., and J. R. Manalo. 2004. “Composition Medium Comparability in a Direct Writing Assessment of Non-Native English Speakers.” Language Learning & Technology 8 (1): 53–65. http://hdl.handle.net/10125/25229.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood, P. 2023. Oxford and Cambridge ban ChatGPT Over Plagiarism Fears but Other Universities Choose to Embrace AI Bot. Inews. https://inews.co.uk/news/oxford-cambridge-ban-chatgpt-plagiarism-universities-2178391
   Google Scholar
• Yau, C., and K. Chan. 2023. University of Hong Kong Temporarily Bans Students from Using ChatGPT, Other AI-Based Tools for Coursework. South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/education/article/3210650/university-hong-kong-temporarily-bans-students-using-chatgpt-other-ai-based-tools-coursework
   Google Scholar