Masked smiles matter – employee verbal expertise and emotion display during COVID-19

References

• Accenture. (2020, April 28). Accenture COVID-19 consumer research. Retrieved July 16, 2020 from: https://www.accenture.com/sk-en/insights/consumer-goods-services/coronavirus-consumer-behavior-research
   Google Scholar
• Agnihotri, R., Vieira, V. A., Senra, K. B., & Gabler, C. B. (2016). Examining the impact of salesperson interpersonal mentalizing skills on performance: The role of attachment anxiety and subjective happiness. Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, 36(2), 174–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/08853134.2016.1178071
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahgz. (2020, June 6). Das Lächeln hinter der Maske. [Smiling behind the face mask]. Retrieved July 17, 2020 from: https://www.ahgz.de/news/mitarbeiter-das-laecheln-hinter-der-maske,200012262942.html
   Google Scholar
• Ashforth, B. E., & Humphrey, R. H. (1993). Emotional labor in service roles: The influence of identity. Academy of Management Review, 18(1), 88–115. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1993.3997508
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barger, P. B., & Grandey, A. A. (2006). Service with a smile and encounter satisfaction: Emotional contagion and appraisal mechanisms. Academy of Management Journal, 49(6), 1229–1238. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2006.23478695
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benbasat, I., & Wang, W. (2005). Trust in and adoption of online recommendation agents. Journal of the Association for Information Systems, 6(3), 72. https://doi.org/10.17705/1jais.00065
   Google Scholar
• Bonaccio, S., & Dalal, R. S. (2006). Advice taking and decision-making: An integrative literature review, and implications for the organizational sciences. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 101(2), 127–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2006.07.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brady, M. K., & Cronin Jr, J. J. (2001). Some new thoughts on conceptualizing perceived service quality: A hierarchical approach. Journal of Marketing, 65(3), 34–49. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.65.3.34.18334
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carbon, C. C. (2020). Wearing face masks strongly confuses counterparts in reading emotions. Preprint: 10.31234/osf.io/sd5mj.
   Google Scholar
• Carbon, C. C., Grüter, M., & Grüter, T. (2013). Age-dependent face detection and face categorization performance. PLoS One, 8(10), e79164. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0079164
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang, C. H., Lin, P. C., Kuan, T. W., Chen, J. M., Lin, Y. C., Wang, J. F., & Tsai, A. C. (2014, September 20–23). Multi-level smile intensity measuring based on mouth-corner features for happiness detection. 2014 International conference on orange technologies (pp. 181–184). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICOT.2014.6956629
   Google Scholar
• Chartrand, J., & Gosselin, P. (2005). Jugement de l'authenticité des sourires et détection des indices faciaux. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue Canadienne de Psychologie Expérimentale, 59(3), 179. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087473
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chi, N. W., Grandey, A. A., Diamond, J. A., & Krimmel, K. R. (2011). Want a tip? Service performance as a function of emotion regulation and extraversion. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(6), 1337. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022884
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coelho, F., & Augusto, M. (2008). Organizational factors associated with job characteristics: Evidence from frontline service employees. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 16(2), 157–172. https://doi.org/10.1080/09652540801981595
   Google Scholar
• de la Rosa, S., Fademrecht, L., Bülthoff, H. H., Giese, M. A., & Curio, C. (2018). Two ways to facial expression recognition? Motor and visual information have different effects on facial expression recognition. Psychological Science, 29(8), 1257–1269. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797618765477
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delcourt, C., Gremler, D. D., van Riel, A. C., & Van Birgelen, M. J. (2016). Employee emotional competence: Construct conceptualization and validation of a customer-based measure. Journal of Service Research, 19(1), 72–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094670515590776
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Del Giudice, M., & Colle, L. (2007). Differences between children and adults in the recognition of enjoyment smiles. Developmental Psychology, 43(3), 796. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.3.796
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Du, J., Fan, X., & Feng, T. (2011). Multiple emotional contagions in service encounters. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 39(3), 449–466. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-010-0210-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DW. (2020, May 19). Lächeln mit Mundschutz - Schau mir in die Augen: Wie Verständigung trotz Corona-Maske funktioniert. [Smile with face mask – How communication works with face mask]. Retrieved July 17, 2020 from: https://www.dw.com/de/schau-mir-in-die-augen-wie-verst%C3%A4ndigung-trotz-corona-maske-funktioniert/a-53486869
   Google Scholar
• Echterhoff, G., Schreier, M., & Hussy, W. (2013). Forschungsmethoden in Psychologie und Sozialwissenschaften für Bachelor [Research methods in psychology and social science for Bachelor students], 2., überarbeitete Auflage. Inprint Springer, Berlin & Heidelberg.
   Google Scholar
• Ekman, P. (1992). Are there basic emotions. Psychological Review, 99(3), 550–553. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.99.3.550
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekman, P., Friesen, W. V., & Hager, J. C. (2002). Facial action coding system – Investigator’s guide, eBook for pdf Readers. Network Information Research Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Elfenbein, H. A. (2014). The many faces of emotional contagion: An affective process theory of affective linkage. Organizational Psychology Review, 4(4), 326–362. https://doi.org/10.1177/2041386614542889
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ericsson, K. A., & Smith, J. (1991). Toward a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fernandez-Dols, J. M., & Ruiz-Belda, M. A. (1995). Are smiles a sign of happiness? Gold medal winners at the Olympic Games. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(6), 1113. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1113
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fornell, C., Johnson, M. D., Anderson, E. W., Cha, J., & Bryant, B. E. (1996). The American customer satisfaction index: Nature, purpose, and findings. Journal of Marketing, 60(4), 7–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224299606000403
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fortin, J. (2020, June 23). Masks keep us safe. They also hide our smiles. Retrieved July 16, 2020 from: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/23/style/face-mask-emotion-coronavirus.html
   Google Scholar
• Gabbott, M., & Hogg, G. (2001). The role of non-verbal communication in service encounters: A conceptual framework. Journal of Marketing Management, 17(1-2), 5–26. https://doi.org/10.1362/0267257012571401
   Google Scholar
• Giebelhausen, M., Robinson, S. G., Sirianni, N. J., & Brady, M. K. (2014). Touch versus tech: When technology functions as a barrier or a benefit to service encounters. Journal of Marketing, 78(4), 113–124. https://doi.org/10.1509/jm.13.0056
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gosselin, P., Perron, M., & Beaupré, M. (2010). The voluntary control of facial action units in adults. Emotion, 10(2), 266. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017748
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grandey, A. A., Fisk, G. M., Mattila, A. S., Jansen, K. J., & Sideman, L. A. (2005). Is service “with a amile” enough? Authenticity of emotion displays during service encounters. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 96(1), 38–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2004.08.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray, R. (2020, July 2). Why we should all be wearing face masks. Retrieved July 16, 2020 from: https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200504-coronavirus-what-is-the-best-kind-of-face-mask
   Google Scholar
• Gremler, D. D., & Gwinner, K. P. (2008). Rapport-building behaviors used by retail employees. Journal of Retailing, 84(3), 308–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2008.07.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guest, G., Bunce, A., & Johnson, L. (2006). How many interviews are enough? An experiment with data saturation and variability. Field Methods, 18(1), 59–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X05279903
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison-Walker, L. J. (2001). The measurement of word-of-mouth communication and an investigation of service quality and customer commitment as potential antecedents. Journal of Service Research, 4(1), 60–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/109467050141006
   Google Scholar
• Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Rapson, R. L. (1992). Primitive emotional contagion. Review of Personality and Social Psychology, 14, 151–177.
   Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis a regression-based approach. The Guildford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hennig-Thurau, T., Groth, M., Paul, M., & Gremler, D. D. (2006). Are all smiles created equal? How emotional contagion and emotional labor affect service relationships. Journal of Marketing, 70(3), 58–73. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.70.3.058
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hennig-Thurau, T., Gwinner, K. P., & Gremler, D. D. (2002). Understanding relationship marketing outcomes: An integration of relational benefits and relationship quality. Journal of Service Research, 4(3), 230–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094670502004003006
   Google Scholar
• Hochschild, A. R. (2006). The managed heart: Commercialization of human feeling. University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Howard, D. J., & Gengler, C. (2001). Emotional contagion effects on product attitudes. Journal of Consumer Research, 28(2), 189–201. https://doi.org/10.1086/322897
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jain, N., Sethi, A., & Mukherji, S. (2009). Impact of communication during service encounters on customer’s perception of organization image. Paradigm, 13(1), 56–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/0971890720090108
   Google Scholar
• Kopelman, S., Rosette, A. S., & Thompson, L. (2006). The three faces of Eve: Strategic displays of positive, negative, and neutral emotions in negotiations. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 99(1), 81–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2005.08.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuehnl, C., Jozic, D., & Homburg, C. (2019). Effective customer journey design: Consumers’ conception, measurement, and consequences. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 47(3), 551–568. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-018-00625-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lechner, A. T., & Paul, M. (2019). Is this smile for real? The role of affect and thinking style in customer perceptions of frontline employee emotion authenticity. Journal of Business Research, 94, 195–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2017.06.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, S., Comer, L. B., Dubinsky, A. J., & Schafer, K. (2011). The role of emotion in the relationship between customers and automobile salespeople. Journal of Managerial Issues, 23(2), 206–226. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23209226
   Google Scholar
• Lee, S., & Dubinsky, A. (2003). Influence of salesperson characteristics and customer emotion on retail dyadic relationships. The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research, 13(1), 21–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593960321000051666
   Google Scholar
• Lemon, K. N., & Verhoef, P. C. (2016). Understanding customer experience throughout the customer journey. Journal of Marketing, 80(6), 69–96. https://doi.org/10.1509/jm.15.0420
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, J., Yang, J., & Wu, H. (2009). Analysis of competency differences among frontline employees from various service typologies: Integrating the perspectives of the organisation and customers. The Service Industries Journal, 29(12), 1763–1778. https://doi.org/10.1080/02642060902793664
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin, M. Q., Huang, L. S., & Chiang, Y. F. (2008). The moderating effects of gender roles on service emotional contagion. The Service Industries Journal, 28(6), 755–767. https://doi.org/10.1080/02642060801988852
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luximon, Y., Anne Sheen, K., & Luximon, A. (2016). Time dependent infrared thermographic evaluation of facemasks. Work, 54(4), 825–835. https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-162353
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maeck, S. (2020, April 27). Fällt das halbe Gesicht weg, reagieren wir mit Unbehagen. [If half of our face is covered, we react with discomfort]. Retrieved July 10, 2020 from: https://www.spiegel.de/psychologie/corona-maskenpflicht-tipps-fuer-kommunikation-mit-maske-a-c46bd0c5-72da-4825-96d3-4045a7445e40
   Google Scholar
• Maguire, P., & Pitceathly, C. (2002). Key communication skills and how to acquire them. BMJ, 325(7366), 697–700. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.325.7366.697
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marinova, D., Singh, S. K., & Singh, J. (2018). Frontline problem-solving effectiveness: A dynamic analysis of verbal and nonverbal cues. Journal of Marketing Research, 55(2), 178–192. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmr.15.0243
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayring, P. (2000). Qualitative content analysis [28 paragraphs]. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 1(2), Art. 20. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs0002204
   Google Scholar
• Mayring, P. (2015). Qualitative Inhaltsanalyse: Grundlagen und Techniken [Qualitative content analysis: Basics and techniques] (12th ed.). Beltz.
   Google Scholar
• Medinlive. (2020, April 2). Immer mehr Länder setzen auf Schutzmasken. [More and more countries rely on protective masks]. Retrieved July 29, 2020 from: https://www.medinlive.at/gesundheitspolitik/immer-mehr-laender-setzen-auf-schutzmasken
   Google Scholar
• Mehta, U. M., Venkatasubramanian, G., & Chandra, P. S. (2020). The “mind” behind the “mask”: Assessing mental states and creating therapeutic alliance amidst COVID-19. Schizophrenia Research, 222), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2020.05.033
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, T., Barnes, D. C., & Friend, S. B. (2017). The role of delight in driving repurchase intentions. Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, 37(1), 61–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/08853134.2016.1272052
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1999). Qualitative data analysis. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Niedenthal, P. M., Halberstadt, J. B., Margolin, J., & Innes-Ker, A. H. (2000). Emotional state and the detection of emotional change in facial expression of emotion. European Journal of Social Psychology, 30(4), 211–222. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(200003/04)30:2<211::AID-EJSP988>3.0.CO;2-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ou, W. M., Shih, C. M., Chen, C. Y., & Tseng, C. W. (2012). Effects of ethical sales behaviour, expertise, corporate reputation, and performance on relationship quality and loyalty. The Service Industries Journal, 32(5), 773–787. https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2010.531268
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parise, S., Guinan, P. J., & Kafka, R. (2016). Solving the crisis of immediacy: How digital technology can transform the customer experience. Business Horizons, 59(4), 411–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2016.03.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plouffe, C. R., Bolander, W., Cote, J. A., & Hochstein, B. (2016). Does the customer matter most? Exploring strategic frontline employees’ influence of customers, the internal business team, and external business partners. Journal of Marketing, 80(1), 106–123. https://doi.org/10.1509/jm.14.0192
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pugh, S. D. (2001). Service with a smile: Emotional contagion in the service encounter. Academy of Management Journal, 44(5), 1018–1027. https://doi.org/10.5465/3069445
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rigby, S. (2020, May 11). Coronavirus: Should we all wear face masks. Retrieved July 16, 2020 from: https://www.sciencefocus.com/news/coronavirus-should-we-all-wear-face-masks/
   Google Scholar
• Robinson, O. C. (2014). Sampling in interview-based qualitative research: A theoretical and practical guide. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 11(1), 25–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2013.801543
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rousseeuw, P. J., & Van Zomeren, B. C. (1990). Unmasking multivariate outliers and leverage points. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 85(411), 633–639. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1990.10474920
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rudnicka, J. (2020, July 15). Durchschnittsalter der Bevölkerung in Deutschland nach Staatsangehörigkeit am 31. Dezember 2019. [Average age of the population in Germany by citizenship on 31 December 2019]. Retrieved July 28, 2020 from: https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/723069/umfrage/durchschnittsalter-der-bevoelkerung-in-deutschland-nach-staatsangehoerigkeit/
   Google Scholar
• Schroll, R., Schnurr, B., & Grewal, D. (2018). Humanizing products with handwritten typefaces. Journal of Consumer Research, 45(3), 648–672. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucy014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott, M. L., Martin, K. D., Wiener, J. L., Ellen, P. S., & Burton, S. (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic at the intersection of marketing and public policy. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 39(3), 257–265. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743915620932151
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sebald, A. K., & Jacob, F. (2018). Help welcome or not: Understanding consumer shopping motivation in curated fashion retailing. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 40(1), 188–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2017.10.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• See, K. E., Morrison, E. W., Rothman, N. B., & Soll, J. B. (2011). The detrimental effects of power on confidence, advice taking, and accuracy. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 116(2), 272–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2011.07.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon, V. (2020, May 30). Mimik hinter der Maske. [Mimicry behind the face mask]. Retrieved July 16, from: https://www.sueddeutsche.de/leben/corona-masken-mimik-1.4922844
   Google Scholar
• Sniezek, J. A., & Van Swol, L. M. (2001). Trust, confidence, and expertise in a judge-advisor system. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 84(2), 288–307. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.2000.2926
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spitzer, M. (2020). Masked education? The benefits and burdens of wearing face masks in schools during the current Corona pandemic. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 20, 100–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2020.100138
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sundaram, D. S., & Webster, C. (2000). The role of nonverbal communication in service encounters. Journal of Services Marketing, 14(5), 378–391. https://doi.org/10.1108/08876040010341008
   Google Scholar
• Thomas, F., Allen, C., Butts, W., Rhoades, C., Brandon, C., & Handrahan, D. L. (2011). Does wearing a surgical facemask or N95-respirator impair radio communication? Air Medical Journal, 30(2), 97–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amj.2010.12.007
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Walsh, G., & Bartikowski, B. (2013). Employee emotional labour and quitting intentions: Moderating effects of gender and age. European Journal of Marketing, 47(3), 1213–1237. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090561311324291
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, Y. J., Hernandez, M. D., & Minor, M. S. (2010). Web aesthetics effects on perceived online service quality and satisfaction in an e-tail environment: The moderating role of purchase task. Journal of Business Research, 63(9-10), 935–942. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2009.01.016
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White, C. J. (2010). The impact of emotions on service quality, satisfaction and positive word-of-mouth intentions over time. Journal of Marketing Management, 26(5-6), 381–394. https://doi.org/10.1080/02672571003633610
   Google Scholar
• White, T. B. (2005). Consumer trust and advice acceptance: The moderating roles of benevolence, expertise, and negative emotions. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 15(2), 141–148. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327663jcp1502_6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO, Collaborating Center for Mental Health. (1998). WHO (five) well-being index. World Health Organization. Retrieved July 8, 2020 from: https://www.psykiatri-regionh.dk/who-5/who-5-questionnaires/Pages/default.aspx
   Google Scholar
• Wolfe, J., Smith, J., Neumann, S., Miller, S., Schafer, E. C., Birath, A. L., Childress, T., McNally, C., McNiece, C., Madell, J., & Spangler, C. (2020). Optimizing communication in schools and other settings during COVID-19. The Hearing Journal, 73(9), 40–42. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.HJ.0000717184.65906.b9
   Google Scholar
• Wood, J. A., Boles, J. S., & Babin, B. J. (2008). The formation of buyer‘s trust of the seller in an initial sales encounter. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 16(1), 27–39. https://doi.org/10.2753/MTP1069-6679160102
   Google Scholar
• Zapf, D., Mertini, H., Voigt, C., Isic, A., & Fischbach, A. (2005). Frankfurter emotion work scales (FEWS, Version 4.2). Johann Wolfgang Goethe Universität.
   Google Scholar
• Zeithaml, V. A., Berry, L. L., & Parasuraman, A. (1996). The behavioral consequences of service quality. Journal of Marketing, 60(2), 31–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224299606000203
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar