555
Views
2
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Instructor strictness: instrument development and validation

ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon
Pages 327-354 | Received 15 Mar 2022, Accepted 27 Jun 2022, Published online: 18 Jul 2022

References

  • Avtgis, T. A. (2016). Instructor use of aggressive communication. In P. L. Witt (Ed.), Communication and learning (pp. 259–286). De Gruyter Mouton.
  • Banfield, S. R., Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C. (2006). The effect of teacher misbehaviors on teacher credibility and affect for the teacher. Communication Education, 55(1), 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520500343400
  • Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology, 4(1), 1–103. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0030372
  • Biggs, J. B., & Watkins, D. A. (2001). Insights into teaching the Chinese learner. In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), Teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives (pp. 277–298). Comparative Education Research Center.
  • Bowman, N. D., & Goodboy, A. K. (2020). Evolving considerations and empirical approaches to construct validity in communication science. Annals of the International Communication Association, 44(3), 219–234. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2020.1792791
  • Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
  • Byrne, B. M. (2005). Factor analytic models: Viewing the structure of an assessment instrument from three perspectives. Journal of Personality Assessment, 85(1), 17–32. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa8501_02
  • Cahn, D. D., & Shulman, G. M. (1984). The perceived understanding instrument. Communication Research Reports, 1(1), 122–125.
  • Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56(2), 81–105. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0046016
  • Carpenter, S. (2018). Ten steps in scale development and reporting: A guide for researchers. Communication Methods and Measures, 12(1), 25–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2017.1396583
  • Carr, S. (2014, December). How strict is too strict? The backlash against no-excuses discipline in high school. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/12/how-strict-is-too-strict/382228/
  • Chen, F. F., Sousa, K. H., & West, S. G. (2005). Teacher’s corner: Testing measurement invariance of second-order factor models. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 12(3), 471–492. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem1203_7
  • Chory-Assad, R. M., & Paulsel, M. L. (2004). Classroom justice: Student aggression and resistance as reactions to perceived unfairness. Communication Education, 53(3), 253–273. https://doi.org/10.1080/0363452042000265189
  • Clark, R. A. (2002). Learning outcomes: The bottom line. Communication Education, 51(4), 396–404. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520216531
  • Coll, R. K., Taylor, N., & Fisher, D. L. (2002). An application of the questionnaire on teacher interaction and college and university classroom environment inventory in a multicultural tertiary context. Research in Science & Technological Education, 20(2), 165–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/0263514022000030435
  • Darling-Hammond, L., & Hyler, M. E. (2020). Preparing educators for the time of COVID … and beyond. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 457–465. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1816961
  • Den Brok, P., & Brekelmans, M. (2001). Internal quality assurance in education: An instrument for the assessment of interpersonal teaching skills. Kvalita Inovacia Prosperita, 5(2), 22–29. https://qip-journal.eu/files/2001/2/KIP-2-2001.pdf#page=32
  • DeVellis, R. F. (2003). Scale development: Theory and applications (2nd ed.). Sage.
  • Duran, R. L. (1983). Communicative adaptability: A measure of social communicative competence. Communication Quarterly, 31(4), 320–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463378309369521
  • Elam, C., Stratton, T., & Gibson, D. D. (2007). Welcoming a new generation to college: The Millennial students. Journal of College Admission, 195, 20–25. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ783953
  • Finn, A. N., & Ledbetter, A. M. (2013). Teacher power mediates the effects of technology policies on teacher credibility. Communication Education, 62(1), 26–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2012.725132
  • Finn, A. N., & Ledbetter, A. M. (2014). Teacher verbal aggressiveness and credibility mediate the relationship between teacher technology policies and perceived student learning. Communication Education, 63(3), 210–234. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2014.919009
  • Fisher, D., Henderson, D., & Fraser, B. (1995). Interpersonal behaviour in senior high school biology classes. Research in Science Education, 25(2), 125–133. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02356447
  • Frey, T. K., Moore, K. P., & Dragojevic, M. (2021). Syllabus sanctions: Controlling language and fairness as antecedents to students’ psychological reactance and intent to comply. Communication Studies, 72(3), 456–473. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2021.1876130
  • Frey, T. K., & Tatum, N. T. (2016). Hoverboards and “hovermoms”: Helicopter parents and their influence on Millennial students’ rapport with instructors. Communication Education, 65(3), 359–361. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2016.1177846
  • Goodboy, A. K., & Kline, R. B. (2017). Statistical and practical concerns with published communication research featuring structural equation modeling. Communication Research Reports, 34(1), 68–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2016.1214121
  • Goodboy, A. K., & Myers, S. A. (2015). Revisiting instructor misbehaviors: A revised typology and development of a measure. Communication Education, 64(2), 133–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2014.978798
  • Hayes, J. G. (2005). Problematic student behaviors in the college communication classroom: Reviewing and re-envisioning instructional communication research. Basic Communication Course Annual, 17(1), 43–93. http://ecommons.udayton.edu/bcca/vol17/iss1/7
  • Hinkin, T. R. (1998). A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires. Organizational Research Methods, 1(1), 104–121. https://d oi.org/10.1177%2F109442819800100106
  • Horan, S. M., Martin, M. M., & Weber, K. (2012). Understanding emotional response theory: The role of instructor power and justice messages. Communication Quarterly, 60(2), 210–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463373.2012.669323
  • Horn, J. L. (1965). A rationale and test for the number of factors in factor analysis. Psychometrika, 30(2), 179–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02289447
  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
  • Jenkins, P. H. (1997). School delinquency and the school social bond. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 34(3), 337–367. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427897034003003
  • Jiang, Y., Lee, C. K. J., Wan, Z. H., & Chen, J. (2021). Stricter teacher, more motivated students? Comparing the associations between teacher behaviors and motivational beliefs of western and east Asian learners. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 3743. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.564327
  • Kearney, P., Plax, T. G., Hays, E. R., & Ivey, M. J. (1991). College teacher misbehaviors: What students don’t like about what teachers say and do. Communication Quarterly, 39(4), 309–324. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463379109369808
  • Kendall, K. D., & Schussler, E. E. (2013a). More than words: Probing the terms undergraduate students use to describe their instructors. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 25(2), 200–212. https://www.isetl.org/ijtlhe/pdf/IJTLHE1528
  • Kendall, K. D., & Schussler, E. E. (2013b). Evolving impressions: Undergraduate perceptions of graduate teaching assistants and faculty members over a semester. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 12(1), 92–105. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.12-07-0110
  • Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). Guilford.
  • Larseingue, M., Sawyer, C. R., & Finn, A. N. (2012). Components of students’ grade expectations for public speaking assignments. Communication Education, 61(4), 428–447. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2012.708765
  • Ledbetter, A. M. (2009). Measuring online communication attitude: Instrument development and validation. Communication Monographs, 76(4), 463–486. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637750903300262
  • Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Sage.
  • Lindlof, T. R., & Taylor, B. C. (2017). Qualitative communication research methods (4th ed.). Sage.
  • Martin, M. M., & Anderson, C. M. (1998). The cognitive flexibility scale: Three validity studies. Communication Reports, 11(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934219809367680
  • Martin, M. M., Dunleavy, K. N., & Kennedy-Lightsey, C. D. (2010). The instrumental use of verbally aggressive messages. In T. Avtgis & A. S. Rancer (Eds.), Arguments, aggression, and conflict: New directions in theory and research (pp. 400–416). Routledge.
  • Martin, M. M., & Rubin, R. B. (1994). Development of a communication flexibility measure. Southern Communication Journal, 59(2), 171–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/10417949409372934
  • Martin, M. M., & Rubin, R. B. (1995). A new measure of cognitive flexibility. Psychological Reports, 76(2), 623–626. https://d oi.org/10.2466%2Fpr0.1995.76.2.623
  • Mazer, J. P. (2012). Development and validation of the student interest and engagement scales. Communication Methods and Measures, 6(2), 99–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2012.679244
  • Mazer, J. P., & Graham, E. E. (2015). Measurement in instructional communication research: A decade in review. Communication Education, 64(2), 208–240. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2014.1002509
  • Mazer, J. P., Murphy, R. E., & Simonds, C. J. (2007). I’ll see you on “Facebook”: The effects of computer-mediated teacher self-disclosure on student motivation, affective learning, and classroom climate. Communication Education, 56(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520601009710
  • McCroskey, J. C. (1998). An introduction to communication in the classroom (2nd ed.). Tapestry Press.
  • Moore, K. P., & Richards, A. S. (2019). The effects of instructor credibility, grade incentives, and framing of a technology policy on students’ intent to comply and motivation to learn. Communication Studies, 70(4), 394–411. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2019.1617761
  • Myers, S. A., & Bryant, L. E. (2004). College students’ perceptions of how instructors convey credibility. Qualitative Research Reports in Communication, 5, 22–27.
  • Myers, S. A., & Knox, R. L. (2000). Perceived instructor argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness and student outcomes. Communication Research Reports, 17(3), 299–309. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824090009388777
  • Plax, T. G., Kearney, P., McCroskey, J. C., & Richmond, V. P. (1986). Power in the classroom VI: Verbal control strategies, nonverbal immediacy, and affective learning. Communication Education, 35(1), 43–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634528609388318
  • Poplin, M., Rivera, J., Durish, D., Hoff, L., Kawell, S., Pawlak, P., Hinman, I. S., Straus, L., & Veney, C. (2011). She’s strict for a good reason: Highly effective teachers in low-performing urban schools. Phi Delta Kappan, 92(5), 39–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/003172171109200509
  • Radziszewska, B., Richardson, J. L., Dent, C. W., & Flay, B. R. (1996). Parenting style and adolescent depressive symptoms, smoking, and academic achievement: Ethnic, gender, and SES differences. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 19(3), 289–305. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01857770
  • Revelle, W. R. (2017). Psych: Procedures for personality and psychological research. Northwestern University. https://www.scholars.northwestern.edu/en/publications/psych-procedures-for-personality-and-psychological-research
  • Rosseel, Y. (2012). Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02
  • RStudio Team. (2021). RStudio: Integrated Development Environment for R. RStudio, PBC. http://www.rstudio.com/
  • Sloat, E., Amrein-Beardsley, A., & Sabo, K. E. (2017). Examining the factor structure underlying the TAP system for teacher and student advancement. AERA Open, 3(4), 1–18. https://d oi.org/10.1177%2F2332858417735526
  • Spitzberg, B. H., & Cupach, W. R. (1984). Interpersonal communication competence. Sage.
  • Spitzberg, B. H., & Cupach, W. R. (1989). Handbook of interpersonal competence research. Springer-Verlag.
  • Steinberg, L. (2001). We know some things: Parent–adolescent relationships in retrospect and prospect. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 11(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/1532-7795.00001
  • Steinberg, L., Blatt-Eisengart, I., & Cauffman, E. (2006). Patterns of competence and adjustment among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful homes: A replication in a sample of serious juvenile offenders. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16(1), 47–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2006.00119.x
  • Stiff, J. B., Dillard, J. P., Somera, L., Kim, H., & Sleight, C. (1988). Empathy, communication, and prosocial behavior. Communication Monographs, 55(2), 198–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637758809376166
  • Tatum, N. T., & Frey, T. K. (2021). (In) flexibility during uncertainty? Conceptualizing instructor strictness during a global pandemic. Communication Education, 70(2), 214–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2020.1857419
  • Tatum, N. T., Olson, M. K., & Frey, T. K. (2018). Noncompliance and dissent with cell phone policies: A psychological reactance theoretical perspective. Communication Education, 67(2), 226–244. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2017.1417615
  • Teven, J. J., & McCroskey, J. C. (1997). The relationship of perceived teacher caring with student learning and teacher evaluation. Communication Education, 46(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634529709379069
  • Thomas, C. E., Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C. (1994). The association between immediacy and socio-communicative style. Communication Research Reports, 11(1), 107–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824099409359946
  • Thompson, B. (2007). The syllabus as a communication document: Constructing and presenting the syllabus. Communication Education, 56(1), 54–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520601011575
  • Thweatt, K. S., & McCroskey, J. C. (1998). The impact of teacher immediacy and misbehaviors on teacher credibility. Communication Education, 47(4), 348–358. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634529809379141
  • Tickle, L. (2017, September 18). How strict is too strict at school? The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/education/2017/sep/18/how-strict-is-too-strick-great-yarmouth-academy-smile
  • Trefzger, J. W. (2018, August 27). Advice for teachers: Dare to be strict. Faculty Focus. https://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/effective-classroom-management/advice-teachers-dare-strict/
  • Vallade, J. I., & Kaufmann, R. (2018). Investigating instructor misbehaviors in the online classroom. Communication Education, 67(3), 363–381. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2018.1467027
  • Worley, D., Titsworth, S., Worley, D. W., & Cornett-DeVito, M. (2007). Instructional communication competence: Lessons learned from award-winning teachers. Communication Studies, 58(2), 207–222. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510970701341170
  • Wubbels, T., Brekelmans, M., & Hooymayers, H. P. (1991). Interpersonal teacher behavior in the classroom. In B. J. Fraser & H. J. Walberg (Eds.), Educational environments: Evaluation, antecedents and consequences (pp. 141–160). Pergamon Press.
  • Wubbels, T., Créton, H., & Hooymayers, H. (1985, March 31–April 4). Discipline problems of beginning teachers, interactional teacher behavior mapped out. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL.
  • Wubbels, T., & Levy, J. (1991). A comparison of interpersonal behavior of Dutch and American teachers. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 15(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(91)90070-W
  • Zhang, Q., & Zhu, W. (2008). Exploring emotion in teaching: Emotional labor, burnout, and satisfaction in Chinese higher education. Communication Education, 57(1), 105–122. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520701586310

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.