774
Views
4
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Entrepreneurship, gender gap and developing economies: the case of post-apartheid South Africa

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon
Pages 293-324 | Received 10 Jun 2017, Accepted 26 Nov 2017, Published online: 26 Dec 2017

References

  • Acs, Z. J., E. Bardasi, S. Estrin, and J. Svejnar. 2011. “Introduction to Special Issue of Small Business Economics on Female Entrepreneurship in Developed and Developing Economies.” Small Business Economics 37 (4): 393.
  • Ahl, H. 2006. “Why Research on Women Entrepreneurs Needs New Directions.” Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 30 (5): 595–621.
  • Amin, M. 2010. “Gender and Firm-Size: Evidence from Africa.” Economics Bulletin 30 (1): 663–668.
  • Amit, R., E. Muller, and I. Cockburn. 1995. “Opportunity Costs and Entrepreneurial Activity.” Journal of Business Venturing 10 (2): 95–106.
  • Åstebro, T., and P. Thompson. 2011. “Entrepreneurs, Jacks of all Trades or Hobos?” Research Policy 40 (5): 637–649.
  • Aycan, Z. 2004. “Key Success Factors for Women in Management in Turkey.” Applied Psychology 53 (3): 453–477.
  • Backes-Gellner, U., and P. Moog. 2013. “The Disposition to Become an Entrepreneur and the Jacks-of-all-trades in Social and Human Capital.” The Journal of Socio-Economics 47: 55–72.
  • Banerjee, A., S. Galiani, J. Levinsohn, Z. McLaren, and I. Woolard. 2008. “Why has Unemployment Risen in the New South Africa? 1.” Economics of Transition 16 (4): 715–740.
  • Baron, R. A. 2006. “Opportunity Recognition as Pattern Recognition: How Entrepreneurs “Connect the Dots” to Identify New Business Opportunities.” The Academy of Management Perspectives 20 (1): 104–119.
  • Baron, R. A., and R. A. Henry. 2010. “How Entrepreneurs Acquire the Capacity to Excel: Insights from Research on Expert Performance.” Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal 4 (1): 49–65.
  • Baughn, C. C., B. L. Chua, and K. E. Neupert. 2006. “The Normative Context for Women's Participation in Entrepreneruship: A Multicountry Study.” Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 30 (5): 687–708.
  • Bird, B., and C. G. Brush. 2002. “A Gendered Perspective on Organizational Creation.” Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 26 (3): 41–66.
  • Blanchflower, D. G., and A. J. Oswald. 1998. “What Makes an Entrepreneur?” Journal of Labor Economics 16 (1): 26–60.
  • Blanden, J., P. Gregg, and S. Machin. 2005. Intergenerational Mobility in Europe and North America. London: Centre for Economic Performance.
  • Blinder, A. S. 1973. “Wage Discrimination: Reduced form and Structural Estimates.” Journal of Human Resources 8 (4): 436–455.
  • Bönte, W., and M. Piegeler. 2013. “Gender Gap in Latent and Nascent Entrepreneurship: Driven by Competitiveness.” Small Business Economics 41 (4): 961–987.
  • Bosma, N., A. Coduras, Y. Litovsky, and J. Seaman. 2012. GEM Manual: A Report on the Design, Data and Quality Control of the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. London: Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Consortium.
  • Botha, M., G. Niemann, and J. Van Vuuren. 2013. “Measuring the Effectiveness of the Women Entrepreneurship Programme on Potential, Start-up and Established Women Entrepreneurs in South Africa.” South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences 10 (2): 160–183.
  • Brixiová, Z., M. Ncube, and Z. Bicaba. 2015. “Skills and youth Entrepreneurship in Africa: Analysis with Evidence from Swaziland.” World Development 67: 11–26.
  • Brown, A. D., P. Stacey, and J. Nandhakumar. 2008. “Making Sense of Sensemaking Narratives.” Human Relations 61 (8): 1035–1062.
  • Brush, C. G. 1992. “Research on Women Business Owners: Past Trends, a New Perspective and Future Directions.” Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 16 (4): 5–31.
  • Brush, C. G. 2006. “Women Entrepreneurs: A Research Overview.” In The Oxford handbook of entrepreneurship, edited by A. Basu, M. Casson, N. Wedeson, and B. Yeung. London: Oxford Publishing.
  • Brush, C. G., N. M. Carter, E. J. Gatewood, P. G. Greene, and M. M. Hart. 2006. “Women's Entrepreneurship in the United States.” In Growth-Oriented Women Entrepreneurs and Their Businesses: A Global Research Perspective, edited by C. G. Brush, N. M. Carter, E. J. Gatewood, P. G. Greene, and M. M. Hart, 184–202. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
  • Bruwer, J.-P., and P. Coetzee. 2016. “A Literature Review of the Sustainability, the Managerial Conduct of Management and the Internal Control Systems Evident in South African Small, Medium and Micro Enterprises.” Problems and Perspectives in Management 14 (2): 201–211.
  • Caliendo, M., F. Fossen, and A. S. Kritikos. 2014. “Personality Characteristics and the Decisions to Become and Stay Self-Employed.” Small Business Economics 42 (4): 787–814.
  • Caliendo, M., F. M. Fossen, A. Kritikos, and M. Wetter. 2015. “The Gender Gap in Entrepreneurship: Not just a Matter of Personality.” CESifo Economic Studies 61 (1): 202–238.
  • Campa, P., A. Casarico, and P. Profeta. 2011. “Gender Culture and Gender gap in Employment.” CESifo Economic Studies 57 (1): 156–182.
  • Carter, N. M., W. B. Gartner, K. G. Shaver, and E. J. Gatewood. 2003. “The Career Reasons of Nascent Entrepreneurs.” Journal of Business Venturing 18 (1): 13–39.
  • Cassar, G. 2006. “Entrepreneur Opportunity Costs and Intended Venture Growth.” Journal of Business Venturing 21 (5): 610–632.
  • Cetindamar, D., V. K. Gupta, E. E. Karadeniz, and N. Egrican. 2012. “What the Numbers Tell: The Impact of Human, Family and Financial Capital on Women and Men's Entry into Entrepreneurship in Turkey.” Entrepreneurship & Regional Development 24 (1–2): 29–51.
  • Chung, J., and G. S. Monroe. 2001. “A Research Note on the Effects of Gender and Task Complexity on an Audit Judgment.” Behavioral Research in Accounting 13 (1): 111–125.
  • Coleman, S., and A. Robb. 2012. A Rising Tide: Financing Strategies for Women-Owned Firms. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
  • Cramer, J. S., J. Hartog, N. Jonker, and C. M. Van Praag. 2002. “Low Risk Aversion Encourages the Choice for Entrepreneurship: An Empirical Test of a Truism.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 48 (1): 29–36.
  • Croson, R., and U. Gneezy. 2009. “Gender Differences in Preferences.” Journal of Economic Literature 47 (2): 448–474.
  • Davidsson, P., and B. Honig. 2003. “The Role of Social and Human Capital among Nascent Entrepreneurs.” Journal of Business Venturing 18 (3): 301–331.
  • Dawson, C., and A. Henley. 2015. “Gender, Risk, and Venture Creation Intentions.” Journal of Small Business Management 53 (2): 501–515.
  • Deborah, A. E., S. Wilhelmina, A. A. Oyelana, and S. I. Ibrahim. 2015. “Challenges Faced by Women Entrepreneurs and Strategies Adopted by Women Entrepreneurs to Ensure Small Business Success in Nkonkobe Municipality, South Africa.” Journal of Economics 6 (1): 37–49.
  • Devine, T. J. 1994a. “Changes in Wage-and-Salary Returns to Skill and the Recent Rise in Female Self-Employment.” The American Economic Review 84 (2): 108–113.
  • Devine, T. J. 1994b. “Characteristics of Self-Employed Women in the United States.” Monthly Labor Review 117: 20.
  • Douglas, E. J., and D. A. Shepherd. 2000. “Entrepreneurship as a Utility Maximizing Response.” Journal of Business Venturing 15 (3): 231–251.
  • Douglas, E. J., and D. A. Shepherd. 2002. “Self-Employment as a Career Choice: Attitudes, Entrepreneurial Intentions, and Utility Maximization.” Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 26 (3): 81–90.
  • DTI. 2015. Republic of South Africa 2014/2015 Report: Financial Incentives. Pretoria, Gauteng: Department of Trade and Industry. Accessed 20 October 2016. http://www.thedti.gov.za/financial_assistance/financial_assistance.jsp.
  • Dustmann, C. 2005. “The Assessment: Gender and the Life Cycle.” Oxford Review of Economic Policy 21 (3): 325–339.
  • Eckel, C. C., and P. J. Grossman. 2002. “Sex Differences and Statistical Stereotyping in Attitudes Toward Financial Risk.” Evolution and Human Behavior 23 (4): 281–295.
  • Fairlie, R. W. 2004. Does Business Ownership Provide a Source of Upward Mobility for Blacks and Hispanics? Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
  • Fossen, F. M. 2012. “Gender Differences in Entrepreneurial Choice and Risk Aversion – A Decomposition Based on a Microeconometric Model.” Applied Economics 44 (14): 1795–1812.
  • Frankish, J. S., R. G. Roberts, A. Coad, and D. J. Storey. 2014. “Is Entrepreneurship a Route out of Deprivation?” Regional Studies 48 (6): 1090–1107.
  • GEM. 2015. The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2014 South African Report. Babson Park, MA: Babson College.
  • Georgellis, Y., and H. J. Wall. 2005. “Gender Differences in Self-Employment.” International Review of Applied Economics 19 (3): 321–342.
  • Graham, J. F., E. J. Stendardi Jr, J. K. Myers, and M. J. Graham. 2002. “Gender Differences in Investment Strategies: An Information Processing Perspective.” International Journal of Bank Marketing 20 (1): 17–26.
  • Harris, C. R., M. Jenkins, and D. Glaser. 2006. “Gender Differences in Risk Assessment: Why do Women Take fewer Risks than Men?” Judgment and Decision Making 1 (1): 48.
  • Hartog, J., M. Van Praag, and J. Van Der Sluis. 2010. “If You Are so Smart, Why Aren't You an Entrepreneur? Returns to Cognitive and Social Ability: Entrepreneurs Versus Employees.” Journal of Economics & Management Strategy 19 (4): 947–989.
  • Herrington, M., J. Kew, and P. Kew. 2015. The Global EntrepreneurshipMonitor 2014 South African Report. Babson Park, MA: Babson College.
  • Herrington, M., and P. Kew. 2016. The Global EntrepreneurshipMonitor 2015 South African Report. Babson Park, MA: Babson College.
  • Herrington, M., P. Kew, and A. Mwanga. 2017. Global Entrepreneursip Monitor 2016/2017 South Africa Report: Can small business survive in South Africa?. London: Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Consortium.
  • Hsieh, C., S. C. Parker, and C. M. van Praag. 2017. “Risk, Balanced Skills and Entrepreneurship.” Small Business Economics 48 (2): 287–302.
  • ILO. 2014. Global Employment Trends 2014: The Risk of a Jobless Recovery. Geneva: International Labour Organization. Accessed 17 October 2016 http://www.ilo.org/global/research/global-reports/global-employment-trends/2014/WCMS_234879/lang–en/index.htm.
  • Ivanova, Y. D., and A. M. Ivanova. 2011. “Gender Effects on Risk-Taking of Entrepreneurs: Evidence from Bulgaria.” International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research 17 (3): 272–295.
  • Jacobs, J. 1961. The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Vintage.
  • Jayawarna, D., J. Rouse, and J. Kitching. 2013. “Entrepreneur Motivations and Life Course.” International Small Business Journal 31 (1): 34–56.
  • Kelley, D. J., B. S. Baumer, C. Brush, P. G. Greene, M. Mahdavi, M. Majbouri, M. Cole, et al. 2017. Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2016/2017 Report on Women's Entrepreneurship. Babson College: Global Entrepreneurship Research Association (GERA).
  • Kelley, D. J., S. Singer, and M. Herrington. 2016. The Global EntrepreneurshipMonitor 2015 Report. Babson Park, MA: Babson College.
  • Kepler, E., and S. Shane. 2007. Are Male and Female Entrepreneurs Really that Different? Springfield, MA: The Office of Advocacy, US Small Business Administration. http://www.pw.seipa.edu.pl/s/p/artykuly/90/909/Female%20Entrepreneurs%20Different%20Shane%202007.pdf.
  • Kihlstrom, R. E., and J. J. Laffont. 1979. “A General Equilibrium Entrepreneurial Theory of Firm Formation Based on Risk Aversion.” The Journal of Political Economy 87 (4): 719–748.
  • Kim, P. H., H. E. Aldrich, and L. A. Keister. 2006. “Access (not) Denied: The Impact of Financial, Human, and Cultural Capital on Entrepreneurial Entryin the United States.” Small Business Economics 27 (1): 5–22.
  • Klasen, S., and I. Woolard. 1999. “Levels, Trends and Consistency of Employment and Unemployment Figures in South Africa.” Development Southern Africa 16 (1): 3–35.
  • Klyver, K., and M. T. Schenkel. 2013. “From Resource Access to use: Exploring the Impact of Resource Combinations on Nascent Entrepreneurship.” Journal of Small Business Management 51 (4): 539–556.
  • Knight, F. H. 1921. Risk, Uncertainty and Profit. New York: Houghton Miffin.
  • Koellinger, P., M. Minniti, and C. Schade. 2013. “Gender Differences in Entrepreneurial Propensity.” Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics 75 (2): 213–234.
  • Krueger, N. F. 2007. “What lies Beneath? The Experiential Essence of Entrepreneurial Thinking.” Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 31 (1): 123–138.
  • Küskü, F., M. Özbilgin, and L. Özkale. 2007. “Against the Tide: Gendered Prejudice and Disadvantage in Engineering.” Gender, Work & Organization 14 (2): 109–129.
  • Lazear, E. P. 2005. “Entrepreneurship.” Journal of Labor Economics 23 (4): 649–680.
  • Lechmann, D. S., and C. Schnabel. 2014. “Are the Self-Employed really Jacks-of-all-Trades? Testing the Assumptions and Implications of Lazear's Theory of Entrepreneurship with German Data.” Small Business Economics 42 (1): 59–76.
  • Lucas, R. E. 1978. “On the Size Distribution of Business Firms.” The Bell Journal of Economics 9 (2): 508–523.
  • Marlow, S., and M. McAdam. 2013. “Gender and Entrepreneurship: Advancing Debate and Challenging Myths; Exploring the Mystery of the Under-Performing Female Entrepreneur.” International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research 19 (1): 114–124.
  • Marlow, S., and J. Swail. 2014. “Gender, Risk and Finance: Why Can't a Woman be More Like a Man?.” Entrepreneurship & Regional Development 26 (1–2): 80–96.
  • Meyer, N., and J. Landsberg. 2015. “Motivational Factors Influencing Women's Entrepreneurship: A Case Study of Female Entrepreneurship in South Africa.” World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, International Journal of Social, Behavioral, Educational, Economic, Business and Industrial Engineering 9 (11): 3857–3862.
  • Mickiewicz, T., F. W. Nyakudya, N. Theodorakopoulos, and M. Hart. 2017. “Resource Endowment and Opportunity Cost Effects Along the Stages of Entrepreneurship.” Small Business Economics 48 (4): 953–976.
  • Morris, M. H., N. N. Miyasaki, C. E. Watters, and S. M. Coombes. 2006. “The Dilemma of Growth: Understanding Venture Size Choices of Women Entrepreneurs.” Journal of Small Business Management 44 (2): 221–244.
  • Neck, H. M., and P. G. Greene. 2011. “Entrepreneurship Education: Known Worlds and New Frontiers.” Journal of Small Business Management 49 (1): 55–70.
  • Neumark, D. 1988. “Employers' Discriminatory Behavior and the Estimation of Wage Discrimination.” Journal of Human Resources 23 (3): 279–295.
  • O'Donnell, E., and E. N. Johnson. 2001. “The Effects of Auditor Gender and Task Complexity on Information Processing Efficiency.” International Journal of Auditing 5 (2): 91–105.
  • Oaxaca, R. 1973. “Male-Female Wage Differentials in Urban Labor Markets.” International Economic Review 14: 693–709.
  • Oaxaca, R., and M. R. Ransom. 1994. “On Discrimination and the Decomposition of Wage Differentials.” Journal of Econometrics 61 (1): 5–21.
  • Oberschachtsiek, D. 2012. “The Experience of the Founder and Self-Employment Duration: A Comparative Advantage Approach.” Small Business Economics 39 (1): 1–17.
  • Parker, S. C. 2009. The Economics of Entrepreneurship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Petzer, D. J., and C. F. De Meyer. 2013. “Trials and Tribulations: Marketing in Modern South Africa.” European Business Review 25 (4): 382–390.
  • Phillips, M., M. Moos, and G. Nieman. 2014. “The Impact of Government Support Initiatives on the Growth of Female Businesses in Tshwane South Africa.” Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 5 (15): 85.
  • Reynolds, P. D. 2011. “New Firm Creation: A Global Assessment of National, Contextual and Individual Factors.” Foundations and Trends in Entrepreneurship 6 (5–6): 315–496.
  • Robichaud, M., M. J. Dugas, and M. Conway. 2003. “Gender Differences in Worry and Associated Cognitive-Behavioral Variables.” Journal of Anxiety Disorders 17 (5): 501–516.
  • Ruef, M., H. E. Aldrich, and N. M. Carter. 2003. “The Structure of Founding Teams: Homophily, Strong ties, and Isolation Among US Entrepreneurs.” American Sociological Review 69 (2): 195–222.
  • SAICA. 2015. SME Insights Report. Johannesburg: South African Institute of Chartered Accountants. Accessed 10 September 2017. http://www.saica.co.za/portals/0/documents/saica_sme.pdf.
  • Schmidt, J., J.-P. Bruwer, J. Aspeling, and R. Mason. 2016. Financing for SMME start-ups, and Expansion for Established SMMEs, in the Retail Sector. Cape Town: Cape Peninsula University of Technology.
  • Simoes, N., N. Crespo, and S. Moreira. 2016. “Individual Determinants of Self-Employment Entry: What do We Really Know?” Journal of Economic Surveys 30 (4): 783–806.
  • Sørensen, A. B. 2000. “Toward a Sounder Basis for Class Analysis.” American Journal of Sociology 105 (6): 1523–1558.
  • STATS. 2017. Education Series Volume III: Educational Enrolment and Achievement, 2016. Pretoria: Statistics South Africa. Accessed 21 July 2017. http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/Report%2092-01-03/Report%2092-01-032016.pdf.
  • Stevenson, H. H., and J. C. Jarillo. 1990. “A Paradigm of Entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurial Management.” Strategic Management Journal 11: 17–27.
  • Stokes, D., and N. Wilson. 2002. Small Business Management and Entrepreneurship. 5th ed. London: Pat Bond.
  • Stuetzer, M., M. Obschonka, P. Davidsson, and E. Schmitt-Rodermund. 2013. “Where do Entrepreneurial Skills Come from?” Applied Economics Letters 20 (12): 1183–1186.
  • Tegtmeier, S., A. Kurczewska, and J. Halberstadt. 2016. “Are Women Graduates Jacquelines-of-all-Trades? Challenging Lazear's view on Entrepreneurship.” Small Business Economics 47 (1): 77–94.
  • Terjesen, S., N. Bosma, and E. Stam. 2016. “Advancing Public Policy for High‐Growth, Female, and Social Entrepreneurs.” Public Administration Review 76 (2): 230–239.
  • Terjesen, S., and A. Lloyd. 2015. The 2015 Female Entrepreneurship Index: Analyzing the Conditions that Foster High-Potential Female Entrepreneurship in 77 Countries. Washington, DC: The Global Entrepreneurship and Development Institute.
  • UNDP. 2014. The Impacts of Social and Economic Inequality on Economic Development in South Africa. Accessed October 2016. http://www.za.undp.org/content/dam/south_africa/docs/Reports/UNDP%20Inequality%20South%20Africa.pdf.
  • Van Praag, C. M., and J. S. Cramer. 2001. “The Roots of Entrepreneurship and Labour Demand: Individual Ability and Low Risk Aversion.” Economica 68 (269): 45–62.
  • Verheul, I., R. Thurik, I. Grilo, and P. van der Zwan. 2012. “Explaining Preferences and Actual Involvement in Self-Employment: Gender and the Entrepreneurial Personality.” Journal of Economic Psychology 33 (2): 325–341.
  • Wagner, J. 2006. “Are Nascent Entrepreneurs ‘Jacks-of-all-trades’? A Test of Lazear's Theory of Entrepreneurship with German Data.” Applied Economics 38 (20): 2415–2419.
  • Wilson, F., and S. Tagg. 2010. “Social Constructionism and Personal Constructivism: Getting the Business Owner's View on the Role of Sex and Gender.” International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship 2 (1): 68–82.
  • Wooldridge, J. 2002. Econometric Analysis of Cross Section and Panel Data. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
  • Yun, M. 2004. “Decomposing Differences in the first Moment.” Economics letters 82 (2): 275–280.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.