Stomaching rejection: Self-compassion and self-esteem moderate the impact of daily social rejection on restrictive eating behaviours among college women

References

• Abrams, D., Hogg, M. A., & Marques, J. M. (Eds.). (2005). Social psychology of inclusion and exclusion. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Adam, T. C., & Epel, E. S. (2007). Stress, eating and the reward system. Physiology & Behavior, 91, 449–458.10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.04.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adams, C. E., & Leary, M. R. (2007). Promoting self-compassionate attitudes toward eating among restrictive and guilty eaters. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 26, 1120–1144.10.1521/jscp.2007.26.10.1120
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arch, J. J., Brown, K. W., Dean, D. J., Landy, L. N., Brown, K. D., & Laudenslager, M. L. (2014). Self-compassion training modulates alpha-amylase, heart rate variability, and subjective response to social evaluative threat in women. Psychonearoendocrinology, 42, 49–58.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnow, B., Kenardy, J., & Agras, W. S. (1995). The emotional eating scale: The development of a measure to assess coping with negative affect by eating. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 18, 79–90.10.1002/(ISSN)1098-108X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumeister, R. F., DeWall, C. N., Ciarocco, N. J., & Twenge, J. M. (2005). Social exclusion impairs self-regulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 589–604.10.1037/0022-3514.88.4.589
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beekman, J. B. (2016). Self-compassionate perspective in the face of social rejection: Effects on eating cognitions and behaviors ( Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The George Washington University, Washington, DC.
   Google Scholar
• Bennett-Goleman, T. (2001). Emotional alchemy: How the mind can heal the heart. New York, NY: Three Rivers Press.
   Google Scholar
• Blackhart, G. C., Nelson, B. C., Knowles, M. L., & Baumeister, R. F. (2009). Rejection elicits emotional reactions but neither causes immediate distress nor lowers self-esteem: A meta-analytic review of 192 studies on social exclusion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 13, 269–309.10.1177/1088868309346065
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blechert, J., Goltsche, J. E., Herbert, B. M., & Wilhelm, F. H. (2014). Eat your troubles away: Electrocortical and experiential correlates of food image processing are related to emotional eating style and emotional state. Biological Psychology, 96, 94–101.10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.12.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolger, N., Davis, A., & Rafaeli, E. (2003). Diary methods: Capturing life as it is lived. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 579–616.10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145030
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breines, J., Toole, A., Tu, C., & Chen, S. (2014). Self-compassion, body image, and self-reported disordered eating. Self and Identity, 13, 432–448.10.1080/15298868.2013.838992
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrd-Bredbenner, C., Quick, V., Koenings, M., Martin-Biggers, J., & Kattelmann, K. K. (2016). Relationships of cognitive load on eating and weight-related behaviors of young adults. Eating Behaviors, 21, 89–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cervera, S., Lahortiga, F., Angel Martinez-Gonzalez, M., Gual, P., Irala-Estevez, J. D., & Alonso, Y. (2003). Neuroticism and low self-esteem as risk factors for incident eating disorders in a prospective cohort study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 33, 271–280.10.1002/eat.v33:3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costa, J., Marôco, J., Pinto-Gouveia, J., Ferreira, C., & Castilho, P. (2016). Validation of the psychometric properties of the self-compassion scale. Testing the factorial validity and factorial invariance of the measure among borderline personality disorder, anxiety disorder, eating disorder and general populations. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 5, 460–468.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R. K., Cooper, M. L., & Bouvrette, A. (2003). Contingencies of self-worth in college students: Theory and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 894–908.10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.894
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dandeneau, S. D., & Baldwin, M. W. (2004). The inhibition of socially rejecting information among people with high versus low self-esteem: The role of attentional bias and the effects of bias reduction training. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 584–603.10.1521/jscp.23.4.584.40306
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• David, J. P., & Suls, J. (1999). Coping efforts in daily life: Role of big five traits and problem appraisals. Journal of Personality, 67, 265–294.10.1111/1467-6494.00056
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (1995). Human autonomy: The basis for true self-esteem. In M. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem (pp. 31–49). New York: Plenum Publishing Co.
   Google Scholar
• Delinsky, S. S., & Wilson, G. T. (2008). Weight gain, dietary restraint, and disordered eating in the freshman year of college. Eating Behaviors, 9, 82–90.10.1016/j.eatbeh.2007.06.001
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dickerson, S. S., Gruenewald, T. L., & Kemeny, M. E. (2004). When the social self is threatened: Shame, physiology, and health. Journal of Personality, 72, 1191–1216.10.1111/j.1467-6494.2004.00295.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eisenberg, D., Nicklett, E. J., Roeder, K., & Kirz, N. E. (2011). Eating disorder symptoms among college students: Prevalence, persistence, correlates, and treatment-seeking. Journal of American College Health, 59, 700–707.10.1080/07448481.2010.546461
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epel, E., Jimenez, S., Brownell, K., Stroud, L., Stoney, C., & Niaura, R. (2004). Are stress eaters at risk for the metabolic syndrome? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1032, 208–210.10.1196/annals.1314.022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ericsson, M., Poston, W. S. C., & Foreyt, J. P. (1996). Common biological pathways in eating disorders and obesity. Addictive Behaviors, 21, 733–743.10.1016/0306-4603(96)00032-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evers, C., Stok, F. M., & de Ridder, D. T. (2010). Feeding your feelings: Emotion regulation strategies and emotional eating. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 792–804.10.1177/0146167210371383
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fairchild, A. J., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2009). A general model for testing mediation and moderation effects. Prevention Science, 10, 87–99.10.1007/s11121-008-0109-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ford, M. B., & Collins, N. L. (2013). Self-esteem moderates the effects of daily rejection on health and well-being. Self and Identity, 12, 16–38.10.1080/15298868.2011.625647
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbert, P. (1989). Human nature and suffering. East Sussex: Lawrence Eribaum.
   Google Scholar
• Gilbert, P. (2005). Compassion and cruelty: A biopsychosocial approach. In P. Gilbert (Ed.), Compassion: Conceptualisations, research and use in psychotherapy (pp. 9–74). London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Grossniklaus, D. A., Dunbar, S. B., Tohill, B. C., Gary, R., Higgins, M. K., & Frediani, J. (2010). Psychological factors are important correlates of dietary pattern in overweight adults. The Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing, 25, 450–460.10.1097/JCN.0b013e3181d25433
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gruenewald, T. L., Kemeny, M. E., Aziz, N., & Fahey, J. L. (2004). Acute threat to the social self: shame, social self-esteem, and cortisol activity. Psychosomatic Medicine, 66, 915–924.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haedt-Matt, A. A., & Keel, P. K. (2011). Revisiting the affect regulation model of binge eating: A meta-analysis of studies using ecological momentary assessment. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 660–681.10.1037/a0023660
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harter, S. (1999). The construction of the self: A developmental perspective. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hermanto, N., & Zuroff, D. C. (2016). The social mentality theory of self-compassion and self-reassurance: The interactive effect of care-seeking and caregiving. The Journal of Social Psychology, 6, 1–13.
   Google Scholar
• Heron, K. E., Scott, S. B., Sliwinski, M. J., & Smyth, J. M. (2014). Eating behaviors and negative affect in college women’s everyday lives. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 47, 853–859.10.1002/eat.v47.8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Irving, L. M., & Neumark-Sztainer, D. (2002). Integrating the prevention of eating disorders and obesity: Feasible or futile? Preventive Medicine, 34, 299–309.10.1006/pmed.2001.0997
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kashdan, T. B., DeWall, C. N., Masten, C. L., Pond Jr., R. S., Powell, C., Combs, D., … Farmer, A. S. (2014). Who is most vulnerable to social rejection? The toxic combination of low self-esteem and lack of negative emotion differentiation on neural responses to rejection. PLoS One, 9, e90651.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly, A. C., & Stephen, E. (2016). A daily diary study of self-compassion, body image, and eating behavior in female college students. Body Image, 17, 152–160.10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.03.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly, A. C., Miller, K. E., & Stephen, E. (2016). The benefits of being self-compassionate on days when interactions with body-focused others are frequent. Body Image, 19, 195–203.10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.10.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kernis, M. H. (2003). Toward a conceptualization of optimal self-esteem. Psychological Inquiry, 14, 1–26.10.1207/S15327965PLI1401_01
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumanyika, S. K., Obarzanek, E., Stettler, N., Bell, R., Field, A. E., Fortmann, S. P., … Hong, Y. (2008). Population-based prevention of obesity the need for comprehensive promotion of healthful eating, physical activity, and energy balance: A scientific statement from American Heart Association Council on Epidemiology and Prevention, interdisciplinary committee for prevention. Circulation, 118, 428–464.10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.189702
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lamarche, L., Gammage, K. L., Klentrou, P., Kerr, G., & Faulkner, G. (2014). Examining psychobiological responses to an anticipatory body image threat in women. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 19, 127–143.10.1111/jabr.2014.19.issue-2
   Google Scholar
• Lamarche, L., Kerr, G., Faulkner, G., Gammage, K. L., & Klentrou, P. (2012). A qualitative examination of body image threats using social self-preservation theory. Body Image, 9, 145–154.10.1016/j.bodyim.2011.10.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lane, H. J. (2007). Emotions and eating behaviours in exercisers. In M. L. Andrew & M. L. Andrew (Eds.), Mood and human performance: Conceptual, measurement and applied issues (pp. 187–200). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Leary, M. R. (2001). Towards a conceptualization of interpersonal rejection. In M. R. Leary (Ed.), Interpersonal rejection (pp. 4–20). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Leary, M. R., & Baumeister, R. F. (2000). The nature and function of self-esteem: Sociometer theory. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 32, 1–62.10.1016/S0065-2601(00)80003-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leary, M. R., Tambor, E. S., Terdal, S. K., & Downs, D. L. (1995). Self-esteem as an interpersonal monitor: The sociometer hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 518–530.10.1037/0022-3514.68.3.518
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leary, M. R., Twenge, J. M., & Quinlivan, E. (2006). Interpersonal rejection as a determinant of anger and aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, 111–132.10.1207/s15327957pspr1002_2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Locke, K. D. (2003). Status and solidarity in social comparison: Agentic and communal values and vertical and horizontal directions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 619–631.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Locke, K. D. (2005). Connecting the horizontal dimension of social comparison with self-worth and self-confidence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 795–803.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lowe, M. R. (2002). Dietary restraint and overeating. Eating disorders and obesity: A comprehensive handbook, 2, 88–92.
   Google Scholar
• Lowe, M. R., Annunziato, R. A., Markowitz, J. T., Didie, E., Bellace, D. L., Riddell, L., … Stice, E. (2006). Multiple types of dieting prospectively predict weight gain during the freshman year of college. Appetite, 47, 83–90.10.1016/j.appet.2006.03.160
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lowe, M. R., & Thomas, J. G. (2009). Measures of restrained eating: Conceptual evolution and psychometric update. In D. B. Allison & M. L. Baskin (Eds.), Handbook of assessment methods for eating behaviors and weight related problems (2nd ed., pp. 137–185). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Macht, M. (2008). How emotions affect eating: A five-way model. Appetite, 50, 1–11.10.1016/j.appet.2007.07.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacKinnon, D. P., & Valente, M. J. (2014). Mediation from multilevel to structural equation modeling. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 65, 198–204.10.1159/000362505
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martyn-Nemeth, P., Penckofer, S., Gulanick, M., Velsor-Friedrich, B., & Bryant, F. B. (2009). The relationships among self-esteem, stress, coping, eating behavior, and depressive mood in adolescents. Research in Nursing & Health, 32, 96–109.10.1002/nur.v32:1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2011). Mplus user’s guide (6th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
   Google Scholar
• Neff, K. D. (2003a). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and Identity, 2, 85–101.10.1080/15298860309032
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neff, K. D. (2003b). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2, 223–250.10.1080/15298860309027
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neff, K. D. (2011). Self-compassion, self-esteem, and well-being. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5, 1–12.10.1111/spco.2010.5.issue-1
   Google Scholar
• Neff, K. D., & Vonk, R. (2009). Self-compassion versus global self-esteem: Two different ways of relating to oneself. Journal of Personality, 77, 23–50.10.1111/jopy.2009.77.issue-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neff, K. D., Kirkpatrick, K. L., & Rude, S. S. (2007). Self-compassion and adaptive psychological functioning. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 139–154.10.1016/j.jrp.2006.03.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neumark-Sztainer, D., Wall, M., Larson, N. I., Eisenberg, M. E., & Loth, K. (2011). Dieting and disordered eating behaviors from adolescence to young adulthood: Findings from a 10-year longitudinal study. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 111, 1004–1011.10.1016/j.jada.2011.04.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nezlek, J. B. (2008). An introduction to multilevel modeling for social and personality psychology. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2, 842–860.10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00059.x
   Google Scholar
• Oaten, M., Williams, K. D., Jones, A., & Zadro, L. (2008). The effects of ostracism on self-regulation in the socially anxious. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27, 471–504.10.1521/jscp.2008.27.5.471
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Odou, N., & Brinker, J. (2014). Exploring the relationship between rumination, self-compassion, and mood. Self and Identity, 13, 449–459.10.1080/15298868.2013.840332
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ogden, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Kit, B. K., & Flegal, K. M. (2012). Prevalence of obesity among adults: United States. NCHS Data Brief, 2013, 1–8.
   Google Scholar
• Pascoe, E. A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 531–554.10.1037/a0016059
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rohleder, N., Chen, E., Wolf, J. M., & Miller, G. E. (2008). The psychobiology of trait shame in young women: Extending the social-self preservation theory. Health Psychology, 27, 523–532.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving the self. New York, NY: Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Salvy, S. J., Bowker, J. C., Nitecki, L. A., Kluczynski, M. A., Germeroth, L. J., & Roemmich, J. N. (2011). Impact of simulated ostracism on overweight and normal-weight youths’ motivation to eat and food intake. Appetite, 56, 39–45.10.1016/j.appet.2010.11.140
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sasaki, J. Y., Ko, D. M., & Kim, H. S. (2014). Culture and self-worth: Implications for social comparison processes and coping with threats to self-worth. In Z. Krizan & F. X. Gibbons (Eds.), Communal functions of social comparison (pp. 230–252). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9781139035583
   Google Scholar
• Schoenefeld, S. J., & Webb, J. B. (2013). Self-compassion and intuitive eating in college women: Examining the contributions of distress tolerance and body image acceptance and action. Eating Behaviors, 14, 493–496.10.1016/j.eatbeh.2013.09.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sedikides, C., & Gregg, A. P. (2008). Self-enhancement: Food for thought. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 102–116.10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00068.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherman, D. K., & Cohen, G. L. (2006). The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 183–242.10.1016/S0065-2601(06)38004-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shroff, H., & Thompson, J. K. (2006). Peer influences, body-image dissatisfaction, eating dysfunction and self-esteem in adolescent girls. Journal of Health Psychology, 11, 533–551.10.1177/1359105306065015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sirois, F. M., Kitner, R., & Hirsch, J. K. (2014). Self-compassion, affect, and health-promoting behaviors. Health Psychology, 34, 661–670.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smart Richman, L., & Leary, M. R. (2009). Reactions to discrimination, stigmatization, ostracism, and other forms of interpersonal rejection: A multimotive model. Psychological Review, 116, 365–383.10.1037/a0015250
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith-Jackson, T., & Reel, J. J. (2012). Freshmen women and the ‘freshman 15’: perspectives on prevalence and causes of college weight gain. Journal of American College Health, 60, 14–20.10.1080/07448481.2011.555931
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sommer, K. (2001). Coping with rejection. In: M. R. Leary (Ed.), Interpersonal rejection (pp. 167–188). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sproesser, G., Schupp, H. T., & Renner, B. (2014). The bright side of stress-induced eating eating more when stressed but less when pleased. Psychological Science, 25, 58–65.10.1177/0956797613494849
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SurveyMonkey [Computer Software]. (2015). Palo Alto, CA: SurveyMonkey. Retrieved from http://surveymonkey.com
   Google Scholar
• Svetieva, E., Zadro, L., Denson, T. F., Dale, E., O’Moore, K., & Zheng, W. Y. (2016). Anger mediates the effect of ostracism on risk-taking. Journal of Risk Research, 19, 614–631.
   Google Scholar
• Taber, J. M., Howell, J. L., Emanuel, A. S., Klein, W. M., Ferrer, R. A., & Harris, P. R. (2016). Associations of spontaneous self-affirmation with health care experiences and health information seeking in a national survey of US adults. Psychology & Health, 31, 292–309.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tofighi, D., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2011). RMediation: An R package for mediation analysis confidence intervals. Behavior Research Methods, 43, 692–700.10.3758/s13428-011-0076-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Truesdale, K. P., Stevens, J., Lewis, C. E., Schreiner, P. J., Loria, C. M., & Cai, J. (2006). Changes in risk factors for cardiovascular disease by baseline weight status in young adults who maintain or gain weight over 15 years: The CARDIA study. International Journal of Obesity, 30, 1397–1407.10.1038/sj.ijo.0803307
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Twenge, J. M., Catanese, K. R., & Baumeister, R. F. (2002). Social exclusion causes self-defeating behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 606–615.10.1037/0022-3514.83.3.606
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vohs, K. D., Voelz, Z. R., Pettit, J. W., Bardone, A. M., Katz, J., Abramson, L. Y., … Joiner, T. E. (2001). Perfectionism, body dissatisfaction, and self-esteem: An interactive model of bulimic symptom development. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 20, 476–497.10.1521/jscp.20.4.476.22397
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waller, G., & Osman, S. (1998). Emotional eating and eating psychopathology among non-eating-disordered women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 23, 419–424.10.1002/(ISSN)1098-108X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webb, J. B., & Hardin, A. S. (2016). An integrative affect regulation process model of internalized weight bias and intuitive eating in college women. Appetite, 102, 60–69.10.1016/j.appet.2016.02.024
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, K. D. (2001). Ostracism: The power of silence. New York, NY: Guilford.
   Google Scholar
• Williams, K. D. (2007). Ostracism. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 425–452.10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085641
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, K. D., Forgas, J. P., & von Hippel, W. (Eds.). (2005). The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Zeigler-Hill, V., & Noser, A. (2015). Will I ever think I’m thin enough? A moderated mediation study of women’s contingent self-esteem, body image discrepancies, and disordered eating. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 39, 109–118.10.1177/0361684313515841
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zwolinski, J. (2014). Does inclusion after ostracism influence the persistence of affective distress? Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 18, 282–301.10.1037/gdn0000012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar