Cost of the NSERC Science Grant Peer Review System Exceeds the Cost of Giving Every Qualified Researcher a Baseline Grant

References

• AUCC. (2007). Trends in Higher Education. Volume 2. Faculty. Ottawa: Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada. http://www.aucc.ca/_pdf/english/publications/trends_2007_vol2_e.pdf (Accessed: 20 January 2009 ).
   Google Scholar
• AUCC. (2008). Trends in Higher Education. Volume 3. Finance. Ottawa: Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada. http://www.aucc.ca/_pdf/english/publications/trends_2008_vol3_e.pdf (Accessed: 20 January 2009 ).
   Google Scholar
• Belousov , B. P. 1958 . “ Oscillation reaction and its mechanisms [Russian] ” . In Collection of Abstracts on Radiation Medicine , 145 Moscow : Medgiz .
   Google Scholar
• Benos , D. J , Bashari , E. , Chaves , J. M. , Gaggar , A. , Kapoor , N. , LaFrance , M. , Mans , R. , Mayhew , D. , McGowan , S. , Polter , A. , Qadri , Y. , Sarfare , S. , Schultz , K. , Splittgerber , R. , Stephenson , J. , Tower , C. , Walton , R. G. and Zotov , A. 2007 . The ups and downs of peer review . Adv Physiol Educ , 31 : 145 – 152 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berezin , A. A. and Hunter , G. 1994 . Myth of competition and NSERC policy of selectivity . Canadian Chemical News , 46 : 4 – 5 .
   Google Scholar
• Berezin , A. A. , Gordon , R. and Hunter , G. 1995a . Anonymous peer review and the QWERTY effect . Amer. Physics Soc. News , 4 : 7
   Google Scholar
• Berezin , A. A. , Gordon , R. and Hunter , G. 1995b . Forum: Lifting the pernicious veil of secrecy; peer reviewers should shed the mask of anonymity argue three Canadian academics . New Scientist , 145 : 46 – 47 .
   Google Scholar
• Berezin , A. A. , Hunter , G. , Pear , J. J. and Rangacharyulu , C. 1998 . Canadian research councils need fundamental reform . OCUFA FORUM (Ontario Confederation of University Faculty Associations) , : 8 – 13 .
   Google Scholar
• Berezin, A. A., Gordon, R., Hunter, G., and Poulin, B. J. (2001). Sliding funding scale deserves a try. CAUT Bulletin, (September). http://www.cautbulletin.ca/en_article.asp?SectionID=684&SectionName=Letters&VolID=178&VolumeName=No%207&VolumeStartDate=689/681/2001&EditionID=2020&EditionName=Vol%2048&EditionStartDate=2001/2001/2001&ArticleID=1764 (Accessed: 20 January 2009 ).
   Google Scholar
• Birenbaum , R. 1993 . The fine art of grantsmanship . University Affairs, Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada , 34 : 6 – 8 .
   Google Scholar
• Braben , D. W. 2004 . Pioneering Research: A Risk Worth Taking , New York : John Wiley and Sons .
   Google Scholar
• Brainard, J. (2007). Teaching math and science may get boost from Congress. Chronicle of Higher Education, 53. http://chronicle.com/weekly/v53/i49/49a00101.htm (Accessed: 20 January 2009 ).
   Google Scholar
• Catano, V. M., Haines, T., Kirpalani, H., Shannon, H., Stringer, B., and Lozanski, L. (2007). Occupational Stress Among Canadian University Academic Staff. Ottawa: Canadian Association of University Teachers http://www.caut.ca/en/publications/healthandsafety/CAUTStress Study-EN.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Catano , V. M. and Turk , J. 2007 . Fraud and misconduct in scientific research: A definition and procedures for investigation . Med Law , 26 : 465 – 476 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Churchill , W. 1947 . 11 November . The Official Report, House of Commons (5th Series) , 444 Nov. 11 : 206 – 207 .
   Google Scholar
• CIHR. (2007). 45th Meeting of Governing Council. http://www. irsc-cihr.gc.ca/e/34357.html (Accessed: 20 January 2009 ).
   Google Scholar
• Cole , J. R. and Stephen , C. 1981 . Peer Review in the National Science Foundation: Phase Two of a Study , Washington , D.C : National Academy Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cole , S. , Cole , J. R. and Simon , G. A. 1981 . Chance and consensus in peer review . Science , 214 : 881 – 886 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Solla Price , D. 1975 . Science Since Babylon , New Haven : Yale University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Drucker , P. F. 1973 . Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices , New York : Harper and Row .
   Google Scholar
• Elgar, F. J. (2003). PhD Completion in Canadian Universities: Final Report. Halifax: Dalhousie University. http://careerchem.com/CAREER-INFO-ACADEMIC/Frank-Elgar.pdf. Graduate Students Association of Canada
   Google Scholar
• Ethics Resource Center . 2006 . How Employees Perceive Ethics at Work: 2005 National Business Ethics Survey
   Google Scholar
• Ferrell , O. C. , Fraedrich , J. and Ferrell , L. 2008 . Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making and Cases , New York : Houghton Mifflin .
   Google Scholar
• Fletcher , J. M. 1992 . Venture capital in Canada: Redesigning the pipeline . Canadian Investment Review , Spring : 99 – 103 .
   Google Scholar
• Forsdyke , D. R. 1989 . A systems analyst asks about AIDS research funding . Lancet , 2 : 1382 – 1384 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forsdyke , D. R. 2000 . Tomorrow's Cures Today? How to Reform the Health Research System , London : Gordon and Breach .
   Google Scholar
• Galanski , M. and Keppler , B. K. 2007 . Searching for the magic bullet: anticancer platinum drugs which can be accumulated or activated in the tumor tissue . Anticancer Agents Med Chem , 7 : 55 – 73 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garfield , E. and Welljams-Dorof , A. 1990 . The impact of fraudulent research on the scientific literature. The Stephen E. Breuning case . JAMA , 263 : 1424 – 1426 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glassford , R. G. , Moriarty , D. and Redmond , G. 1980 . Grantsmanship , Vanier , Ontario : CAHPER Research Committee .
   Google Scholar
• Goonatilake , S. 1984 . Aborted Discovery, Science & Creativity in the Third World , London : Zed Books .
   Google Scholar
• Gordon , R. 1993 . Grant agencies versus the search for truth . Accountability in Research: Policies and Quality Assurance , 2 : 297 – 301 .
   Google Scholar
• Gordon , R. 1996 . Viewpoint: A rough analysis of funding inequity in the Faculty of Medicine, University of Manitoba . Prairie Med. J. , 66 : 131 – 132 .
   Google Scholar
• Gordon, R. (1999). The Hierarchical Genome and Differentiation Waves: Novel Unification of Development, Genetics and Evolution. Singapore and London: World Scientific and Imperial College Press. http://www.wspc.com.sg/books/lifesci/2755.html (Accessed: 21 January 2009 ).
   Google Scholar
• Gordon, R., and Poulin, B. J. (1999). Testimony at Standing Committee on Health, Canadian Parliament, December 1, 1999, on Bill C-13, An Act to establish the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, to repeal the Medical Research Council Act and to make consequential amendments to other Acts, The Minister of Health. http://www.parl.gc.ca/InfoComDoc/36/2/HEAL/Meetings/Evidence/healev07-e.htm (Accessed: 12 September 2000 ).
   Google Scholar
• Gozlan, M. (2005). Turning Medical Dogma on Its Head: Nobel Prize Winner Barry Marshall, MBBS, Medscape Med Students. 7(2). http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/514219 (Accessed: 21 January 2009 ).
   Google Scholar
• Hawkins, R. W., Langford, C. H., and Sidhu, K. S. (2006). University research in an ‘innovation society’. In: Blue Sky II, 2006 Conference, What Indicators for Science, Technology and Innovation Policies in the 21st Century, Ottawa, Canada, 26 September. Eds. Paris, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/23/50/37436286.pdf (Accessed: 21 January 2009 ).
   Google Scholar
• Hodges , A. 1983 . Alan Turing: The Enigma , New York : Simon and Schuster .
   Google Scholar
• Hodgson , C. 1997 . How reliable is peer review? An examination of operating grant proposals simultaneously submitted to two similar peer review systems . Journal of Clinical Epidemiology , 50 : 1189 – 1195 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes, P. (1994). The meteorologist who started a revolution. Weatherwise, 47: 1–29. http://pangaea.org/wegener.htm (Accessed: 21 January 2009 ).
   Google Scholar
• Humphreys , L. G. , Hower , J. , Westley , J. , Kyburg , H. E Jr , Cole , S. , Cole , J. R. and Simon , G. A. 1982 . NSF Peer Review (Continued) . Science , 215 : 346 – 348 .
   Google Scholar
• Kapur, D. M. J. (2005). Give Us Your Best and Brightest: The Global Hunt for Talent and Its Impact on the Developing World. Washington, D.C.: Center for Global Development. http://www.cgdev.org/content/publications/detail/4415/ (Accessed: 21 January 2009 ).
   Google Scholar
• Langford , C. H. , Hall , J. , Josty , P. , Matos , S. and Jacobson , A. 2006 . Indicators and outcomes of Canadian university research: Proxies becoming goals? . Research Policy , 35 : 1586 – 1598 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lauffer , A. D. M. L. W. S. E. , Dluhy , M. , Lawrence , W. and Snyder , E. 1977 . Grantsmanship , Beverly Hills , CA : Sage Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Laznicka , P. 1993 . The dark side of grantsmanship . University Affairs (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada) , 34 : 26
   Google Scholar
• Leavitt , D. 2006 . The Man Who Knew too Much: Alan Turing and the Invention of the Computer , New York : W. W. Norton .
   Google Scholar
• Lewin , B. 1989 . Fraud and the fabric of science . Cell , 57 : 699 – 700 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manning , P. 2007 . You want liberation? . Globe and Mail , February 23 : A20
   Google Scholar
• Marchildon , L. 2007 . NSERC reviews Discovery Grant Program and GSC Structure/CAP Position Paper on NSERC International Review of the Discovery Grants Program . CAP News (Canadian Association of Physicists) , 7 ( 4 ) : 1
   Google Scholar
• Mayo , N. E. , Brophy , J. , Goldberg , M. S. , Klein , M. B. , Miller , S. , Platt , R. W. and Ritchie , J. 2006 . Peering at peer review revealed high degree of chance associated with funding of grant applications . Journal of Clinical Epidemiology , 59 : 842 – 848 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meikle, M., Wilson, E., and Gordon, R. (1992). The Science Game: Interview of Richard Gordon (Quirks and Quarks). Audio tape, February 15, 1992. Toronto: Canadian Broadcasting Corp. http://www.cbc.ca/quirks/archives/92-93/oct1092.htm (Accessed: 21 January 2009 ).
   Google Scholar
• Meikle , M. , Wilson , E. , Osmond , D. and Forsdyke , D. R. 1995 . Quirks and Quarks: Interview of Dan Osmond and Don Forsdyke. Audio tape, May 13, 1995 , Toronto : Canadian Broadcasting Corp .
   Google Scholar
• Milsum , J. H. 1968 . Positive Feedback: A General Systems Approach to Positive/Negative Feedback and Mutual Causality , Oxford : Pergamon Press .
   Google Scholar
• Mitchell, J. (2006). A Review of NSERC and SSHRC. Ottawa, Industry Canada. http://www.ryerson.ca/ors/news_archive/download/Federal_Review_of%20NSERC_and%20SSHRC.doc (Accessed: 21 January 2009 ).
   Google Scholar
• Munro , M. 2008 . Cancer researcher fired over faked data: Ottawa institute discovers past misconduct . National Post , June 19 : A10
   Google Scholar
• Nicholson, P., Davies, G., Kaspi, V., Mayer, L. A., Olsen, K., Robson, A., Winnacker, E.-L., Salcudean, M., and Tibshirani, R. (2008). Report of the International Review Committee on the Discovery Grants Program. Ottawa: Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council. http://www.nserc.gc.ca/about/PDF/international_review_e.pdf (Accessed: 10 June 2008 ).
   Google Scholar
• NIH. (2006a). Average Cost of Competing and Non-Competing Research Grants. http://grants.nih.gov/grants/award/research/RGAVG06.htm (Accessed: 21 January 2009 ).
   Google Scholar
• NIH. (2006b). Research Project Success Rates by Type and Activity for 2006. http://grants.nih.gov/grants/award/success/Success_ByActivity.cfm (Accessed: 21 January 2009 ).
   Google Scholar
• NSERC. (2005). Facts and Figures: Discovery Grants Competition Results, 1995–2005. http://www.nserc.gc.ca/about/stats/2004-2005/tableshow_e.asp?tableValue=27 (Accessed: 3 October 2007 ).
   Google Scholar
• NSERC. (2006). Peer Review Manual 2006: Appendix 1. Guidelines Governing Membership of Selection Committees and Panels. http://www.nserc.gc.ca/commit/prm2006/app1_e.pdf (Accessed: 27 September 2007 ).
   Google Scholar
• NSERC . 2007a . NSERC Discovery Grants Information Session , Ottawa : Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council Canada .
   Google Scholar
• NSERC. (2007b). Inter-agency Funding Mechanism. http://www. nserc.gc.ca/about/initiatives/Tri-Agency/2007_06-06_e.htm#interagency (Accessed: 3 October 2007 ).
   Google Scholar
• NSERC (2008a). Discovery Programs Budget 2007–08. Ottawa: Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. http://www.nserc.gc.ca/about/2006-2007-figures_e.pdf (Accessed: 23 September 2008 ).
   Google Scholar
• NSERC. (2008b). Eligibility Criteria. http://www.nserc.gc.ca/professors_e.asp?nav=profnav&lbi=11a1 (Accessed: 11 June 2008 ).
   Google Scholar
• NSERC. (2008c). List of Eligible Institutions. http://www.nserc.gc.ca/institution/list_inst_e.htm (Accessed: 24 September 2008 ).
   Google Scholar
• OECD (2007). Education at a Glance 2007: OECD Indicators. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/4/55/39313286.pdf (Accessed: 21 January 2009 ).
   Google Scholar
• Office of Inspector General (2006). Annual Audit Plan, FY 2007. Washington, DC, National Science Foundation. http://www.nsf.gov/oig/FY2007_Annual_Audit_Plan.pdf (Accessed: 3 October 2007 ).
   Google Scholar
• Pharaon , S. 2007 . Open peer review: A route to democracy . J R Soc Med , 100 : 9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polanyi , J. C. 2007 . You want innovation? Liberate Canada's scientists . Globe and Mail , February 21 : A21
   Google Scholar
• Poulin , B. J. and Gordon , R. 2001 . How to organize science funding: The new Canadian Institutes for Health Research (CIHR), an opportunity to vastly increase innovation . Canadian Public Policy , 27 : 95 – 112 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pouris , A. 2007 . Estimating R&D expenditures in the higher education sector . Minerva , 45 : 3 – 16 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson, G. G. C., and Lewthwaite, B. (2007). Centres for Research in Youth, Science Training and Learning (CRYSTAL). http://www.umanitoba.ca/outreach/crystal/index.html (Accessed: 21 January 2009 ).
   Google Scholar
• Root-Bernstein , R. S. 1989 . Breaking faith . Sciences (New York) , 29 : 8 – 11 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sedra, A. (2008). Recommendations to the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council, Grant Selection Committee Structure Review Advisory Committee. Ottawa: Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council. http://www.nserc.gc.ca/about/GSC_final_report_e.pdf (Accessed: 10 June 2008 ).
   Google Scholar
• Smith , S. C. 1997 . The postdoc trap . University Affairs (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada) , 38 : 16 – 17 .
   Google Scholar
• Smith , S. H. and McLean , D. D. 1988 . ABC's of Grantsmanship , Reston , VA : CAHPERD .
   Google Scholar
• Statistics Canada (2004). Salaries and Salary Scales of Full-time Teaching Staff at Canadian Universities, 2003–2004.. Ottawa: Postsecondary and Adult Learning Section, Statistics Canada. http://www.statcan.ca/english/research/81-595-MIE/81-595-MIE2004019.pdf (Accessed: 21 January 2009 ).
   Google Scholar
• Taylor, M., and Yasmeen, G. (2008). Results of the grants and fellowships competitions held between September 2007 and March 2008. http://www.sshrc.ca/web/whatsnew/peer_review_letter_e.asp#results (Accessed: 21 January 2009 ).
   Google Scholar
• Tibbetts, J. (2007). Canada trails world in science grads. Falls below OECD average, risks being left behind in knowledged-based economy: Study. Ottawa Citizen, (September 19). http://www.canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/story.html?id=9c05ed71-04cb01-04deb-af83-dd6385f6389abc6382&k=52985 (Accessed: 19 September 2007 ).
   Google Scholar
• Titus , S. L. , Wells , J. A. and Rhoades , L. J. 2008 . Repairing research integrity: A survey suggests that many research misconduct incidents in the United States go unreported to the Office of Research Integrity . Nature , 453 : 980 – 982 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tornow, J. (2006). Award Size, Duration and Success Rates. http://www.nsf.gov/od/ipamm/ipamm_jtornow_nsb_update_0605.pdf (Accessed: 21 January 2009 ).
   Google Scholar
• Tornow, J. (2007). Impact of Proposal and Award Management Mechanisms. U.S. National Science Foundation. http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/2007/nsf0745/nsf0745.pdf (Accessed: 21 January 2009 ).
   Google Scholar
• Turing , A. M. 1952 . The chemical basis of morphogenesis . Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London , B237 : 37 – 72 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varmus, H. (2008). Advancing Global Health by Encouraging Medical Science Worldwide. http://mms//windows.stream.yorku.ca/faculty/abel/as/abelfriesen.wmv http://www.fcihr.ca/news (Accessed: 24 September 2008 ).
   Google Scholar
• Vella , F. , Mietchen , D. and Gabaldon , T. 2004 . Perceptions about postdocs . EMBO Rep , 5 : 1104
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warwick , A. 1998 . “ Exercising the student body: Mathematics and Athleticism in Victorian Cambridge ” . In Science Incarnate: Historical Embodiments of Natural Knowledge , Edited by: Lawrence , C. and Shapin , S. 288 – 326 . Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Winfree , A. T. 1984 . The prehistory of the Belousov-Zhabotinsky oscillator . J. Chem. Ed. , 61 : 661 – 663 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yin , R. K. 1989 . Case Study Research: Design and Methods , Newbury Park , CA : Sage Publications .
   Google Scholar