Using Neurotechnologies to Develop Virtues: A Buddhist Approach to Cognitive Enhancement

REFERENCES

• Ashton , M. C. and Lee , K. 2005 . Honesty-Humility, the Big Five, and the Five-Factor Model . Journal of Personality , 73 : 1321 – 1354 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumeister , R. F. , Vohs , K. D. and Tice , D. M. 2007 . The strength model of self-control . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 16 : 351 – 355 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumgartner , T. , Heinrichs , M. , Vonlanthen , A. , Fischbacher , U. and Fehr , E. 2008 . Oxytocin shapes the neural circuitry of trust and trust adaptation in humans . Neuron , 58 : 639 – 650 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beaver , K. M. , Mancini , C. , DeLisi , M. and Vaughn , M. G. 2011 . Resiliency to victimization: The role of genetic factors . Journal of Interpersonal Violence , 26 ( 5 ) : 874 – 898 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ben Zion , I. Z. , Tessler , R. , Cohen , L. , Lerer , E. , Raz , Y. , Bachner-Melman , R. , Gritsenko , I. , Nemanov , L. , Zohar , A. H. , Belmaker , R. H. , Benjamin , J. and Ebstein , R. P. 2006 . Polymorphisms in the dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) contribute to individual differences in human sexual behavior: Desire, arousal and sexual function . Molecular Psychiatry , 11 : 782 – 786 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bitner , R. , Hillman , L. , Victor , B. and Walsh , R. 2003 . Subjective effects of antidepressants: A pilot study of the varieties of antidepressant-induced experiences in meditators . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 191 : 660 – 667 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blasi , G. , Lo Bianco , I. , Taurisano , P. , Gelao , B. , Romano , R. , Fazio , L. , Papazacharias , A. , Di Giorgio , A. , Caforio , G. , Rampino , A. , Masellis , R. , Papp , A. , Ursini , G. , Sinibaldi , L. , Popolizio , T. , Sadee , W. and Bertolino , A. 2008 . Functional variation of the dopamine D2 receptor gene is associated with emotional control as well as brain activity and connectivity during emotion processing in humans . Journal of Neuroscience , 29 : 14812 – 14819 . and
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouchard , T. and McGue , M. 2003 . Genetic and environmental influences on human psychological differences . Journal of Neurobiology , 54 : 4 – 45 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlo , G. , Okun , M. A. , Knight , G. P. and de Guzman , M. R. T. 2005 . The interplay of traits and motives on volunteering: agreeableness, extraversion, and prosocial value motivation . Personal Individ. Differ. , 38 : 1293 – 1305 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• del Barrio , V. , Aluja , A. and Garcia , L. F. 2004 . Relationship between empathy and the Big Five personality traits in a sample of spanish adolescents . Social Behavior and Personality , 32 : 677 – 682 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeRijka , R. , van Leeuwenb , N. , Klokb , M. D. and Zitmana , F. G. 2008 . Corticosteroid receptor-gene variants: Modulators of the stress-response and implications for mental health . European Journal of Pharmacology , 585 : 492 – 501 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dhammapala , A. 1978 . A Treatise on the Paramis: From the Commentary to the Cariyapitaka. translated from the Pali by Bhikkhu Bodhi , Kandy , , Sri Lanka : Buddhist Publication Society .
   Google Scholar
• Domes , G. , Heinrichs , M. , Michel , A. , Berger , C. and Herpertz , S. C. 2007 . Oxytocin improves “mind-reading” in humans . Biol. Psychiatry , 61 : 731 – 733 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doris , J. 2002 . Lack of Character: Personality and Moral Behaviour , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Douglas , T. 2008 . Moral enhancement . Journal of Applied Philosophy , 25 : 228 – 245 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Epstein , M. 1993 . Awakening with Prozac: Pharmaceuticals and practice . Tricycle , : 30 – 34 .
   Google Scholar
• Faraone , S. V. and Mick , E. 2010 . Molecular genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder . Psychiatric Genetics , 33 : 159 – 180 .
   Google Scholar
• Faust , H. S. 2008 . Should we select for genetic moral enhancement? A thought experiment using the MoralKinder (MK+) haplotype . Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics , 29 : 397 – 416 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fenton , A. 2009 . Buddhism and Neuroethics: The Ethics of Pharmaceutical Cognitive Enhancement . Developing World Bioethics , 9 : 47 – 56 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredrickson , B. L. , Cohn , M. A. , Coffey , K. A. , Park , J. and Finkel , S. M. 2008 . Open hearts build lives: Positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 95 : 1045 – 1062 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fröding , B. E. E. 2011 . Cognitive enhancement, virtue ethics and the good life . Neuroethics , 4 : 223 – 234 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodman , A. 2009 . Sexual addiction update assessment, diagnosis, and treatment . Psychiatric Times , 26 : 1 – 3 .
   Google Scholar
• Goodman , C. 2008 . Consequentialism, agent-neutrality, and Mahayana ethics . Philosophy East and West , 58 : 17 – 35 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodman , C. 2009 . Consequences of Compassion: An Interpretation and Defense of Buddhist Ethics , Oxford , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Grubin , D. 2010 . Chemical castration for sex offenders . B.M.J. , 340 : c74
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hajicek-Dobberstein , S. 1995 . Soma siddhas and alchemical enlightenment: Psychedelic mushrooms in Buddhist tradition . Journal of Ethnopharmacology , 48 : 99 – 118 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hameed , S. , Dhillo , W. S. and Bloom , S. R. 2009 . Gut hormones and appetite control . Oral Diseases , 15 : 18 – 26 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harman , G. 1999 . Moral philosophy meets social psychology: Virtue ethics and the fundamental attribution error . Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society , 99 : 315 – 331 .
   Google Scholar
• Haworth , C. M. A. , Wright , M. J. , Martin , N. W. , Martin , N. G. , Boomsma , D. I. , Bartels , M. , Posthuma , D. , Davis , O. S. P. , Brant , A. M. , Corley , R. P. , Hewitt , J. K. , Iacono , W. G. , McGue , M. , Thompson , L. A. , Hart , S. A. , Petrill , S. A. , Lubinski , D. and Plomin , R. 2009 . A twin study of the genetics of high cognitive ability selected from 11,000 twin pairs in six studies from four countries . Behavior Genetics , 39 : 359 – 370 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hooper , J. 1999 . Prozac and enlightened mind: Can antidepressants help or hinder waking up? . Tricycle , 8 : 38 – 110 .
   Google Scholar
• Horsburgh , V. A. , Schermer , J. A. , Veselka , L. and Vernon , P. 2009 . A behavioural genetic study of mental toughness and personality . Personality and Individual Differences , 46 : 100 – 105 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hutcherson , C. A. , Seppala , E. M. and Gross , J. J. 2008 . Loving-kindness meditation increases social connectedness . Emotion , 8 : 720 – 724 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jang , K. , Livesley , W. J. and Vemon , P. A. 1996 . Heritability of the Big Five personality dimensions and their facets: A twin study . Journal of Personality , 64 : 577 – 591 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keown , D. 1992 . The Nature of Buddhist Ethics , New York: Macmillan/Palgrave .
   Google Scholar
• Kendler , K. S. and Myers , J. 2010 . The genetic and environmental relationship between major depression and the five-factor model of personality . Psychological Medicine , 40 : 801 – 806 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King , W. 1964 . In the Hope of Nibbana , La Salle , IL : Open Court .
   Google Scholar
• Kosfeld , M. , Heinrichs , M. , Zak , P. J. , Fischbacher , U. and Fehr , E. 2005 . Oxytocin increases trust in humans . Nature , 435 : 673 – 676 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee , K. and Ashton , M. C. 2005 . Psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and Narcissism in the Five-Factor Model and the HEXACO model of personality structure . Personality and Individual Differences , 38 : 1571 – 1582 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim , M. M. , Wang , Z. , Olazábal , D. E. , Ren , X. , Terwilliger , T. F. and Young , L. J. 2004 . Enhanced partner preference in a promiscuous species by manipulating the expression of a single gene . Nature Genetics , 429 : 754 – 757 .
   Google Scholar
• Luo , X. , Kranzler , H. R. , Zuo , L. , Zhang , H. , Wang , S. and Gelernter , J. 2007 . CHRM2 variation predisposes to personality traits of agreeableness and conscientiousness . Human Molecular Genetics , 16 : 1557 – 1568 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lykken , D. T. 1999 . Happiness: What Studies on Twins Show Us about Nature, Nurture, and the Happiness Set Point , New York: Golden Books .
   Google Scholar
• Lyubomirsky , S. , King , L. and Diener , E. 2005 . The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? . Psychological Bulletin , 131 ( 6 ) : 803 – 855 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDermott , R. , Tingley , D. , Cowden , J. , Frazzetto , G. and Johnsone , D. D. P. 2009 . Monoamine oxidase A gene (MAOA) predicts behavioral aggression following provocation . PNAS , 106 : 2118 – 2123 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oishi , S. , Diener , E. and Lucas , R. E. 2007 . The optimum level of well-being: Can people be too happy? . Perspectives on Psychological Science , 2 : 346 – 360 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozer , D. J. and Benet-Martinez , V. 2006 . Personality and the prediction of consequential outcomes . Annual Review of Psychology , 57 : 401 – 421 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pace , T. , Negi , L. T. , Adame , D. D. , Cole , S. P. , Sivilli , T. I. , Brown , T. D. , Issa , M. J. and Raison , C. L. 2008 . Effect of compassion meditation on neuroendocrine, innate immune and behavioral responses to psychosocial stress . Psychoneuroendocrinology , 34 : 87 – 98 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson , I. and Savulescu , J. 2008 . The perils of cognitive enhancement and the urgent imperative to enhance the moral character of humanity . Journal of Applied Philosophy , 25 : 162 – 177 .
   Google Scholar
• Redmond , G. 2004 . Are psychedelics the true Dharma? A review essay of . Zig Zag Zen: Buddhism and Psychedelics. Journal of Buddhist Ethics , 11 : 78 – 97 .
   Google Scholar
• Rodrigues , S. M. , Saslow , L. R. , Garcia , N. , John , O. P. and Keltner , D. 2010 . Oxytocin receptor genetic variation relates to empathy and stress reactivity in humans . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA , 107 : 13936 – 13941 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Savulescu , J. and Persson , I. 2012 . Unfit for the Future: The Need for Moral Enhancement , Oxford: Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Savulescu , J. and Sandberg , A. 2008 . Neuroenhancement of love and marriage: The chemicals between us . Neuroethics , 1 : 31 – 44 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siderits , M. 2003 . Empty Persons: Personal Identity and Buddhist Philosophy , Aldershot , England; Burlington, VT : Ashgate .
   Google Scholar
• Spence , S. A. 2008 . Can pharmacology help enhance human morality? . The British Journal of Psychiatry , 193 : 179 – 180 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spiro , M. 1972 . Buddhism and Society , New York : Harper Paperbacks .
   Google Scholar
• Sugiyama , S. , Prochiantz , A. and Hensch , T. K. 2009 . From brain formation to plasticity: Insights on Otx2 homeoprotein . Development, Growth and Differentiation , 51 : 369 – 377 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tambs , K. , Czajkowsky , N. , Roysamb , E. and Neale , M. C. 2009 . Structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for dimensional representations of DSM–IV anxiety disorders . The British Journal of Psychiatry , 195 : 301 – 307 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson , M. R. , Callaghan , P. D. , Hunt , G. E. , Cornish , J. L. and McGregor , I. S. 2007 . A role for oxytocin and 5-HT(1A) receptors in the prosocial effects of 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine . Neuroscience , 146 : 509 – 514 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trungpa , C. 2002 . Cutting Through Spiritual Materialism , Boston , MA : Shambhala Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Vialou , V. 2010 . ΔFosB in brain reward circuits mediates resilience to stress and antidepressant responses . Nature Neuroscience , 13 : 745 – 752 . Robison, A. J., Laplant, Q. C., Covington, H. E., Dietz, D. M., Ohnishi, Y. N., Mouzon, E., Rush, A. J., Watts, E. L., Wallace, D. L., Iñiguez, S. D., Ohnishi, Y. H., Steiner, M. A., Warren, B. L., Krishnan, V., Bolaños, C. A., Neve, R. L., Ghose, S., Berton, O., Tamminga, C. A., and Nestler, E. J.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker, M. (2006). In praise of bio-happiness. IEET White Paper. Available at(Last accessed December 8, 2012) http://ieet.org/archive/IEET-02-BioHappiness.pdf (http://ieet.org/archive/IEET-02-BioHappiness.pdf)
   Google Scholar
• Walker , M. 2009 . Enhancing genetic virtue: A project for twenty-first century humanity? . Politics and the Life Sciences , 28 : 27 – 47 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Weiss , A. , Bates , T. C. and Luciano , M. 2008 . Happiness is a personal(ity) thing: The genetics of personality and well-being in a representative sample . Psychological Science , 19 : 205 – 210 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitehill , J. 1994 . Buddhist ethics in Western context: The virtues approach . Journal of Buddhist Ethics , 1 : 1 – 22 .
   Google Scholar
• Zak , P. J. , Stanton , A. A and Ahmadi , S. 2007 . Oxytocin increases generosity in humans . PLoS One , 2 : e1128
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zald , D. H. , Cowan , R. L. , Riccardi , P. , Baldwin , R. , Ansari , M. S , Li , R. , Shelby , E. S. , Smith , C. E. , McHugo , M. and Kessler , R. M. 2008 . Midbrain dopamine autoreceptor availability is inversely associated with novelty seeking traits in humans . Journal of Neuroscience , 28 : 14372 – 14378 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zietsch , B. P. , Verweij , K. , Bailey , J. , Wright , M. and Martin , N. 2010 . Genetic and environmental influences on risky sexual behaviour and its relationship with personality . Behavior Genetics , 40 : 12 – 21 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar