Publication Cover
School Effectiveness and School Improvement
An International Journal of Research, Policy and Practice
Volume 29, 2018 - Issue 4
3,030
Views
2
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Ability tracking and social trust in China’s rural secondary school system

ORCID Icon, , , , &
Pages 545-572 | Received 29 Jan 2017, Accepted 22 May 2018, Published online: 12 Jun 2018

References

  • Alesina, A., & La Ferrara, E. (2000). The determinants of trust (Working Paper No. 7621). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. doi:10.3386/w7621. Retrieved from http://www.nber.org/papers/w7621
  • Arteaga, I., & Glewwe, P. (2014). Achievement gap between indigenous and non-indigenous children in Peru: An analysis of young lives survey data (Working Paper No. 130). Oxford, UK: Young Lives. Retrieved from http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/handle/123456789/4493
  • Banerjee, A. V., & Duflo, E. (2011). Why aren’t children learning. Development Outreach, 13(1), 36–44. doi:10.1596/1020-797X_13_1_36
  • Baum, F., Parker, C., Modra, C., Murray, C., & Bush, R. (2000). Families, social capital and health. In I. Winter (Ed.), Social capital and public policy in Australia (pp. 250–275). Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies.
  • Beaton, A. E., Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Gonzalez, E. J., Kelly, D. L., & Smith, T. A. (1996). Mathematics achievement in the middle school years: IEA’s Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). Chestnut Hill, MA: Center for the Study of Testing, Evaluation, and Educational Policy, Boston College.
  • Behrman J. R., & Rosenzweig, M. R. (2002). Does increasing women’s schooling raise the schooling of the next generation? American Economic Review, 92(1), 323–334. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3083336
  • Bernstein, B. (1975). Class, codes and control: Towards a theory of educational transmission (Vol. 3). London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Retrieved from https://epdf.tips/towards-a-theory-of-educational-transmissions-class-codes-and-control.html
  • Betts, J. R., & Shkolnik, J. L. (2000). The effects of ability grouping on student achievement and resource allocation in secondary schools. Economics of Education Review, 19(1), 1–15. doi:10.1016/S0272-7757(98)00044-2
  • Booij, A. S., Leuven, E., & Oosterbeek, H. (2017). Ability peer effects in university: Evidence from a randomized experiment. The Review of Economic Studies, 84(2), 547–578. doi:10.1093/restud/rdw045
  • Bourdieu, P., & Wacquant, L. J. D. (1992). An invitation to reflexive sociology. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
  • Bowditch, C. (1993). Getting rid of troublemakers: High school disciplinary procedures and the production of dropouts. Social Problems, 40(4), 493–509. doi:10.2307/3096864
  • Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment and healthy human development. London, UK: Routledge.
  • Bowles, S., & Gintis, H. (1976). Schooling in capitalist America: Educational reform and the contradiction of economic life. New York, NY: Basic Books.
  • Brehm, J., & Rahn, W. (1997). Individual-level evidence for the causes and consequences of social capital. American Journal of Political Science, 41(3), 999–1023. doi:10.2307/2111684
  • Brown, P. H., & Park, A. (2002). Education and poverty in rural China. Economics of Education Review, 21(6), 523–541. doi:10.1016/S0272-7757(01)00040-1
  • Burns, N., Kinder, D., & Rahn, W. (2003, April). Social trust and democratic politics. Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Mid-West Political Science Association, Chicago, IL. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.203.4681&rep=rep1&type=pdf
  • Cantoni, D., & Yuchtman, N. (2013). The political economy of educational content and development: Lessons from history. Journal of Development Economics, 104, 233–244. doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2013.04.004
  • Chen, X., Cen, G., Li, D., & He, Y. (2005). Social functioning and adjustment in Chinese children: The imprint of historical time. Child Development, 76(1), 182–195. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00838.x
  • Cheng, L. (1997). How does washback influence teaching? Implications for Hong Kong. Language and Education, 11(1), 38–54. doi:10.1080/09500789708666717
  • Cheung, C.-K., & Rudowicz, E. (2003). Academic outcomes of ability grouping among junior high school students in Hong Kong. The Journal of Educational Research, 96(4), 241–254. doi:10.1080/00220670309598813
  • China National Bureau of Statistics. (2011). China statistical yearbook – 2011. Retrieved from http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2011/indexch.htm
  • Clarke, M., Haney, W., & Madaus, G. (2000). High stakes testing and high school completion. National Board on Educational Testing and Public Policy: Statements, 1(3), 1–12. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED456139
  • Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology), 94(1), S95–S120. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2780243
  • Currie, J., & Thomas, D. (2000). School quality and the longer-term effects of head start. Journal of Human Resources, 35(4), 755–774. doi:10.2307/146372
  • Dang, H.-A., & Rogers, F. H. (2008). The growing phenomenon of private tutoring: Does it deepen human capital, widen inequalities, or waste resources? The World Bank Research Observer, 23(2), 161–200. doi:10.1093/wbro/lkn004
  • Dello-Iacovo, B. (2009). Curriculum reform and “quality education” in China: An overview. International Journal of Educational Development, 29(3), 241–249. doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2008.02.008
  • Ding, W., & Lehrer, S. F. (2007). Do peers affect student achievement in China’s secondary schools? The Review of Economics and Statistics, 89(2), 300–312. doi:10.1162/rest.89.2.300
  • Duflo, E., Dupas, P., & Kremer, M. (2011). Peer effects, teacher incentives, and the impact of tracking: Evidence from a randomized evaluation in Kenya. The American Economic Review, 101(5), 1739–1774. doi:10.1257/aer.101.5.1739
  • Epple, D., Newlon, E., & Romano, R. (2002). Ability tracking, school competition, and the distribution of educational benefits. Journal of Public Economics, 83(1), 1–48. doi:10.1016/S0047-2727(00)00175-4
  • Fiedler, E. D., Lange, R. E., & Winebrenner, S. (2002). In search of reality: Unraveling the myths about tracking, ability grouping, and the gifted. Roeper Review, 24(3), 108–111. doi:10.1080/02783190209554142
  • Figlio, D. N., & Page, M. E. (2002). School choice and the distributional effects of ability tracking: Does separation increase inequality? Journal of Urban Economics, 51(3), 497–514. doi:10.1006/juec.2001.2255
  • Filmer, D. (2000). The structure of social disparities in education: Gender and wealth (World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 2268). Washington, DC: World Bank. Retrieved from https://ssrn.com/abstract=629118
  • Fortin, L., Marcotte, D., Potvin, P., Royer, E., & Joly J. (2006). Typology of students at risk of dropping out of school: Description by personal, family and school factors. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 21(4), 363–383. doi:10.1007/BF03173508
  • Glaeser, E. L., Laibson, D. I., Scheinkman, J. A., & Soutter, C. L. (2000). Measuring trust. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 115(3), 811–846. doi:10.1162/003355300554926
  • Glewwe, P., Hanushek, E. A., Humpage, S., & Ravina, R. (2013). School resources and educational outcomes in developing countries: A review of the literature from 1990 to 2010. In P. Glewwe (Ed.), Education policy in developing countries (pp. 13–64). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
  • Glewwe, P., & Kremer, M. (2006). Schools, teachers, and education outcomes in developing countries. In E. A. Hanushek & F. Welch (Eds.), Handbook of the economics of education (Vol. 2, pp. 945–1017). Amsterdam: North-Holland. doi:10.1016/S1574-0692(06)02016-2
  • Grootaert, C. (2001). Social capital: The missing link. In P. Dekker & E. M. Uslaner (Eds.), Social capital and participation in everyday life (pp. 9–29). London: Routledge.
  • Hall, P. A. (1999). Social capital in Britain. British Journal of Political Science, 29(3), 417–461. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/194145
  • Hallberg, U. E., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2006). “Same same” but different? Can work engagement be discriminated from job involvement and organizational commitment? European Psychologist, 11(2), 119–127. doi:10.1027/1016-9040.11.2.119
  • Hallinan, M. T. (1996). Track mobility in secondary school. Social Forces, 74(3), 983–1002. doi:10.1093/sf/74.3.983
  • Halpern, D. (2005). Social capital. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
  • Hanushek, E. A., & Wößmann, L. (2006). Does educational tracking affect performance and inequality? Differences-in-differences evidence across countries. The Economic Journal, 116(510), C63–C76. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0297.2006.01076.x
  • Helliwell, J. F., & Putnam, R. D. (2007). Education and social capital. Eastern Economic Journal, 33(1), 1–19. doi:10.1057/eej.2007.1
  • Hoffer, T. B. (1992). Middle school ability grouping and student achievement in science and mathematics. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 14(3), 205–227. doi:10.3102/01623737014003205
  • Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., & Sandler, H. M. (1997). Why do parents become involved in their children’s education? Review of Educational Research, 67(1), 3–42. doi:10.3102/00346543067001003
  • Inglehart, R. (1999). Trust, well-being and democracy. In M. E. Warren (Ed.), Democracy and trust (pp. 88–120). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  • Kerckhoff, A. C., & Glennie, E. (1999). The Matthew effect in American education. Research in Sociology of Education and Socialization, 12, 35–66.
  • Khor, N., Pang, L., Liu, C., Chang, F., Mo, D., Loyalka, P., & Rozelle, S. (2016). China’s looming human capital crisis: Upper secondary educational attainment rates and the middle-income trap. The China Quarterly, 228, 905–926. doi:10.1017/S0305741016001119
  • Klusmann, U., Kunter, M., Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., & Baumert, J. (2008). Teachers’ occupational well-being and quality of instruction: The important role of self-regulatory patterns. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(3), 702–715. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.100.3.702
  • Knack, S., & Keefer, P. (1995). Institutions and economic performance: Cross-country tests using alternative institutional measures. Economics & Politics, 7(3), 207–227. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0343.1995.tb00111.x
  • Knack, S., & Keefer, P. (1997). Does social capital have an economic payoff? A cross-country investigation. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112(4), 1251–1288. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2951271
  • Kokko, K., & Pulkkinen, L. (2000). Aggression in childhood and long-term unemployment in adulthood: A cycle of maladaptation and some protective factors. Developmental Psychology, 36(4), 463–472. doi:10.1037//0012-1649.36.4.463
  • Kokko, K., Tremblay, R. E., Lacourse, E., Nagin, D. S., & Vitaro, F. (2006). Trajectories of prosocial behavior and physical aggression in middle childhood: Links to adolescent school dropout and physical violence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16(3), 403–428. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2006.00500.x
  • Kolenikov, S., & Angeles, G. (2009). Socioeconomic status measurement with discrete proxy variables: Is principal component analysis a reliable answer? Review of Income and Wealth, 55(1), 128–165. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00309.x
  • Kraft, M. A., & Rogers, T. (2015). The underutilized potential of teacher-to-parent communication: Evidence from a field experiment. Economics of Education Review, 47, 49–63. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2015.04.001
  • Kulik, C.-L. C., & Kulik, J. (1982). Effects of ability grouping on secondary school students: A meta-analysis of evaluation findings. American Educational Research Journal, 19(3), 415–428. doi:10.3102/00028312019003415
  • Lai, F. (2007). How do classroom peers affect student outcomes? Evidence from a natural experiment in Beijing’s middle schools. Retrieved from https://www.aeaweb.org/annual_mtg_papers/2008/2008_447.pdf
  • Lam, S.-F., Yim, P.-S., Law, J. S. F., & Cheung, R. W. Y. (2004). The effects of competition on achievement motivation in Chinese classroom. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74(2), 281–296. doi:10.1348/000709904773839888
  • La Porta, R., Lopez-de-Silanes, F., Shleifer, A., & Vishny, R. W. (1997). Trust in large organizations. The American Economic Review, 87(2), 333–338. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2950941
  • Lee, J. C.-K., Yin, H., & Zhang, Z. (2009). Exploring the influence of the classroom environment on students’ motivation and self-regulated learning in Hong Kong. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 18(2), 219–232. doi:10.3860/taper.v18i2.1324
  • Lei, W. (2005). Expenditure on private tutoring for senior secondary students: Determinants and policy implications. Education and Economy, 2005(1), 39–42. [in Chinese]. Retrieved from http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTotal-JYJI200501009.htm
  • Leigh, A. (2006). Trust, inequality and ethnic heterogeneity. Economic Record, 82(258), 268–280. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4932.2006.00339.x
  • Li, F., Song, Y., Yi, H., Wei, J., Zhang, L., Shi, Y., … Rozelle, S. (2017). The impact of conditional cash transfers on the matriculation of junior high school students into rural China’s high schools. Journal of Development Effectiveness, 9(1), 41–60. doi:10.1080/19439342.2016.1231701
  • Li, Y., Pickels, A., & Savage, M. (2005). Social capital and social trust in Britain. European Sociological Review, 21(2), 109–123. doi:10.1093/esr/jci007
  • Liu, C., Zhang, L., Luo, R., Rozelle, S., Sharbono, B., & Shi, Y. (2009). Development challenges, tuition barriers, and high school education in China. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 29(4), 503–520. doi:10.1080/02188790903312698
  • Liu, D. (2014). Secrets behind slow-tracked students matriculated into vocational high school [in Chinese]. Retrieved from http://www.jyb.cn/zyjy/zjsd/201407/t20140710_589800.html
  • Liu, H., & Wu, Q. (2006). Consequences of college entrance exams in China and the reform challenges. KEDI Journal of Educational Policy, 3(1), 7–21.
  • Loyalka, P., Shi, Z., Chu, J., Johnson, N., Wei, J., & Rozelle, S. (2014). Is the high school admissions process fair? Explaining inequalities in elite high school enrollments in developing countries (Working Paper No. 276). Stanford, CA: Rural Education Action Program (REAP), Stanford University. Retrieved from https://reap.fsi.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/276-is_the_high_school_admissions_process_fair.pdf
  • Maaz, K., Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., & Baumert, J. (2008). Educational transitions and differential environments: How explicit between-school tracking contributes to social inequality in educational outcomes. Child Development Perspectives, 2(2), 99–106. doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2008.00048.x
  • Martin, M. O., Mullis, I. V. S., & Foy, P. (with Olson, J. F., Preuschoff, C., Erberber, E., Arora, A., & Galia, J.). (2009). TIMSS 2007 international mathematics report: Findings from IEA’s Trends in International Mathematics And Science Study at the fourth and eighth grades. Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Lynch School of Education, Boston College.
  • Martin, M. O., & Preuschoff, C. (2007). Creating the TIMSS 2007 background indices. In J. F. Olson, M. O. Martin, & I. V. S. Mullis (Eds.), TIMSS 2007 technical report (pp. 281–338). Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Lynch School of Education, Boston College.
  • McPartland, J. (1993). Dropout prevention in theory and practice. Baltimore, MD: Center for Research on Effective Schooling for Disadvantage Students.
  • Ministry of Education. (2006). Compulsory education law of the People’s Republic of China. Beijing, China: Author. Retrieved from http://old.moe.gov.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_2803/200907/49979.html
  • Mo, D., Zhang, L., Yi, H., Luo, R., Rozelle, S., & Brinton C. (2013). School dropouts and conditional cash transfers: Evidence from a randomised controlled trial in rural China’s junior high schools. The Journal of Development Studies, 49(2), 190–207. doi:10.1080/00220388.2012.724166
  • Mueller, C. M., & Dweck, C. S. (1998). Praise for intelligence can undermine children’s motivation and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(1), 33–52. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.33
  • Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Ruddock, G. J., O’Sullivan, C. Y., Arora, A., & Erberber, E. (2007). TIMSS 2007 assessment frameworks. Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Lynch School of Education, Boston College. Retrieved from https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/TIMSS2007/frameworks.html
  • Narayan, D. (1997). Voices of the poor: Poverty and social capital in Tanzania. Washington, DC: World Bank.
  • Oakes, J. (1982). The reproduction of inequity: The content of secondary school tracking. The Urban Review, 14(2), 107–120. doi:10.1007/BF02174647
  • Oakes, J. (1985). Keeping track: How schools structure inequality. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
  • Organisation for Economic and Co-operation Development. (2012). Education at a glance 2012: OECD indicators. Paris, France: Author. doi:10.1787/eag-2012-en
  • Putnam, R. (1993). The prosperous community: Social capital and public life. The American Prospect, 4(13), 35–42. Retrieved from http://staskulesh.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/prosperouscommunity.pdf
  • Retelsdorf, J., Butler, R., Streblow, L., & Schiefele, U. (2010). Teachers’ goal orientations for teaching: Associations with instructional practices, interest in teaching, and burnout. Learning and Instruction, 20(1), 30–46. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.01.001
  • Rivkin, S. G., Hanushek, E. A., & Kain, J. F. (2005). Teachers, schools, and academic achievement. Econometrica, 73(2), 417–458. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0262.2005.00584.x
  • Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1995). Crime in the making: Pathways and turning points through life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  • Schultz, T. (2004). School subsidies for the poor: Evaluating the Mexican Progresa poverty program. Journal of Development Economics, 74(1), 199–250. doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2003.12.009
  • Shi, Y., Zhang, L., Ma, Y., Yi, H., Liu, C., Johnson, N., … Rozelle, S. (2015). Dropping out of rural China’s secondary schools: A mixed-methods analysis. The China Quarterly, 224, 1048–1069. doi:10.1017/S0305741015001277
  • Shuell, T. J. (1996). Teaching and learning in a classroom context. In D. C. Berliner & R. C. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 726–764). New York, NY: Macmillan. doi:10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/02449-9
  • Sirin, S. R. (2005). Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review of research. Review of Educational Research, 75(3), 417–453. doi:10.3102/00346543075003417
  • Slavin, R. E. (1990). Achievement effects of ability grouping in secondary schools: A best-evidence synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 60(3), 471–499. doi:10.3102/00346543060003471
  • Slavin, R. E. (1993). Ability grouping in the middle grades: Achievement effects and alternatives. The Elementary School Journal, 93(5), 535–552. doi:10.1086/461739
  • Stevenson, H. W., Lee, S.-Y., & Chen, C. (1994). Education of gifted and talented students in mainland China, Taiwan, and Japan. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 17(2), 104–130. doi:10.1177/016235329401700203
  • Talbert, J. E., & Ennis, M. (1990, April). Teacher tracking: Exacerbating inequalities in the high school. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston, MA.
  • Tang, T. (1991). Students’ perceptions of the learning context and their effects on approaches to learning: A phenomenographic study ( Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
  • Tarabini, A. (2010). Education and poverty in the global development agenda: Emergence, evolution and consolidation. International Journal of Educational Development, 30(2), 204–212. doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2009.04.009
  • Tilak, J. B. G. (2001). Education and development: Lessons from Asian experience. Indian Social Science Review, 3(2), 219–266.
  • Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., Marsh, H. W., Köller, O., & Baumert, J. (2006). Tracking, grading, and student motivation: Using group composition and status to predict self-concept and interest in ninth-grade mathematics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(4), 788–806. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.98.4.788
  • Tsang, M. C. (2000). Education and national development in China since 1949: Oscillating policies and enduring dilemmas. China Review, 579–618. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/23453384
  • Tsang, M. C., Ding, X., & Shen, H. (2010). Urban-rural disparities in private tutoring of lower-secondary students. Education and Economics, 2010(2), 7–11. [in Chinese]. Retrieved from http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTOTAL-JYJI201002002.htm
  • Van Houtte, M., Demanet, J., & Stevens, P. A. J. (2012). Self-esteem of academic and vocational students: Does within-school tracking sharpen the difference? Acta Sociologica, 55(1), 73–89. doi:10.1177/0001699311431595
  • Vickers, H. S. (1994). Young children at risk: Differences in family functioning. The Journal of Educational Research, 87(5), 262–270. doi:10.1080/00220671.1994.9941253
  • Wang, H., Yang, C., He, F., Shi, Y., Qu, Q., Rozelle, S., & Chu, J. (2015). Mental health and dropout behavior: A cross-sectional study of junior high students in northwest rural China. International Journal of Educational Development, 41(1), 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2014.12.005
  • Wang, S. [Sangui], Zeng, J., Shi, Y., Luo, R., & Zhang, L. (2012). Poor western regions pupils’ differences in gender, health and education. Journal of Agrotechnical Economics, 6(1), 4–14. [in Chinese]
  • Wang, S. [Shanmai]. (2008). Analysis on the policy of “key schools” in Chinese basic education. Educational Research, 3(338), 64–66. [in Chinese].
  • Wang, X., Liu, C., Zhang, L., Luo, R., Glauben, T., Shi, Y., Rozelle, S., & Sharbono, B. (2011). What is keeping the poor out of college? Enrollment rates, educational barriers and college matriculation in China. China Agricultural Economic Review, 3(2), 131–149. doi:10.1108/17561371111131281
  • Wang, X., Liu, C., Zhang, L., Shi, Y., & Rozelle, S. (2013). College is a rich, Han, urban, male club: Research notes from a census survey of four tier one colleges in China. The China Quarterly, 214, 456–470. doi:10.1017/S0305741013000647
  • West, M. R., & Wöβmann, L. (2006). Which school systems sort weaker students into smaller classes? International evidence. European Journal of Political Economy, 22(4), 944–968. doi:10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2005.07.002
  • Wilson, W. J. (1996). When work disappears: The world of the new urban poor. New York, NY: Alfred Knopf.
  • Wong, M. S. W., & Watkins, D. (2001). Self-esteem and ability grouping: A Hong Kong investigation of the Big Fish Little Pond effect. Educational Psychology, 21(1), 79–87. doi:10.1080/01443410123082
  • Woolcock, M. (1998). Social capital and economic development: Toward a theoretical synthesis and policy framework. Theory and Society, 27(2), 151–208. doi:10.1023/A:1006884930135
  • Wooldridge, J. (2010). Econometric analysis of cross section and panel data. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
  • Xinhua. (2010). Setting up the “key schools”, exams for tracking placement [in Chinese: Qiao Li Ming Mu She “Zhong Dian Ban”, Fen Ban Kao Shi Pai Man Kai Xue Ji]. Retrieved from http://education.news.cn/2015-09/06/c_128198766.htm
  • Xu, T., Hu, N., & Mao, M. (2009). The pay-for-performance reform in China’s compulsory education: Rewarding us with our own money? China Southern Daily. Retrieved from http://www.jyb.cn/basc/sd/200911/t20091112_323118.html
  • Xue, H., & Ding, X. (2009). A study on additional instruction for students in cities and towns in China. Educational Research, 30(1), 39–46. [in Chinese]
  • Ye, L. (2013). Meritocracy and the Gaokao: A survey study of higher education selection and socio-economic participation in east China. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 34(5–6), 868–887. doi:10.1080/01425692.2013.816237
  • Yi, H., Song, Y., Liu, C., Huang, X., Zhang, L., Bai, Y., … Rozelle, S. (2015). Giving kids a head start: The impact and mechanisms of early commitment of financial aid on poor students in rural China. Journal of Development Economics, 113, 1–15. doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2014.11.002
  • Yi, H., Zhang, L., Luo, R., Shi, Y., Mo, D., Chen, X., … Rozelle, S. (2012). Dropping out: Why are students leaving junior high in China’s poor rural areas? International Journal of Educational Development, 32(4), 555–563. doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2011.09.002
  • Yi, W. (2011). The comparative research on the mental health of rural left-at-home children in junior high school. Journal of University of Electronic Science and Technology of China (Social Sciences Edition), 13(3), 97–101 [in Chinese]. Retrieved from http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTOTAL-DKJB201103021.htm
  • Yu, L., & Suen, H. K. (2005). Historical and contemporary exam-driven education fever in China. KEDI Journal of Educational Policy, 2(1), 17–33.
  • Yuen-Yee, G. C., & Watkins, D. (1994). Classroom environment and approaches to learning: An investigation of the actual and preferred perceptions of Hong Kong secondary school students. Instructional Science, 22(3), 233–246. doi:10.1007/BF00892244
  • Zak, P. J., & Knack, S. (2001). Trust and growth. The Economic Journal, 111(470), 295–321. doi:10.1111/1468-0297.00609
  • Zhang, Y. (2013). Does private tutoring improve students’ National College Entrance Exam performance? A case study from Jinan, China. Economics of Education Review, 32(1), 1–28. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2012.09.008