290
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

The role of education and income as protective factors against intimate partner violence and HIV exposure among Kenyan women

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, & ORCID Icon
Pages 230-245 | Received 03 Nov 2020, Accepted 01 Jan 2022, Published online: 10 May 2022

References

  • Abramsky, T., Watts, C. H., Garcia-Moreno, C., Devries, K., Kiss, L., Ellsberg, M., Jansen, H. A. F. M., & Heise, L. (2011). What factors are associated with recent intimate partner violence? Findings from the WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence. BMC Public Health, 11(1), 109. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-109
  • Akl Moanack, M. P., Pérez, A. C., Díaz, N. B., & Cardona, M. L. Y. (2016). Beliefs on restorative justice of ten women victims of domestic violence. Ratio Juris, 11(22), 91–116. https://doi.org/10.24142/raju.v11n22a4
  • Balogun, M. O., & John-Akinola, Y. O. (2015). A qualitative study of intimate partner violence among women in Nigeria. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(14), 2410–2427. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514553112
  • Bandiera, O., Buehren, N., Burgess, R., Goldstein, M., Gulesci, S., Rasul, I., & Sulaiman, M. (2012). Empowering adolescent girls: Evidence from a randomized control trail in Uganda. World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/25529
  • Berube, A., & Katz, B. (2005, October 1). Katrina’s Window: Confronting concentrated poverty across America. The Brookings Institution. https://www.brookings.edu/research/katrinas-window-confronting-concentrated-poverty-across-america/
  • Bott, S., Guedes, A., Goodwin, M., & Mendoza, J. A. (2012). Intimate partner violence in Latin America and the Caribbean: A comparative analysis of population-based data from 12 countries. Pan American Health Organization. https://www3.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=8175:2013-violence-against-women-latin-america-caribbean-comparative-analysis&Itemid=41342&lang=en
  • Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
  • Creighton, C., Yieke, F., Okely, J., Mareri, L., Wafula, C., & Smith, E. (2006). Gender inequalities in Kenya. UNESDOC Digital Library. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000145887
  • Crenshaw, K. (1995). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of colour. In K. Crenshaw, N. Gotanda, G. Peller, & K. Thomas (Eds.), Critical race theory: The key writings that informed the movement (pp. 357–383). New York Press.
  • Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches (4th ed.). SAGE.
  • Denning, P., & DiNenno, E. (2011, December 11). Communities in crisis: Is there a generalized HIV epidemic in impoverished urban areas of the United States? Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/group/poverty.html
  • Denzin, N. (1989). The research act: A theoretical introduction to sociological research methods (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall.
  • Djamba, Y. K., & Kimuna, S. R. (2008). Intimate partner violence among married women in Kenya. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 43(4), 457–469. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909608091976
  • Dunkle, K. L., Jewkes, R. K., Brown, H. C., Gray, G. E., McIntryre, J. A., & Harlow, S. D. (2004). Transactional sex among women in Soweto, South Africa: Prevalence, risk factors and association with HIV infection. Social Science & Medicine, 59(8), 1581–1592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.02.003
  • Dworkin, S. L., Treves-Kagan, S., & Lippman, S. A. (2013). Gender-transformative interventions to reduce HIV risks and violence with heterosexually-active men: A review of the global evidence. AIDS and Behavior, 17(9), 2845–2863. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-013-0565-2
  • Edwards, K. M., Changilwa, P., Waterman, E., Bikeri, C., Mweru, C., Khayanje, N., & Obel, P. (2021). A promising approach to preventing gender-based violence and HIV among slum-dwelling youth in Nairobi, Kenya. Violence Against Women, 10778012211014562. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778012211014562
  • Ellsberg, M., Arango, D. J., Morton, M., Gennari, F., Kiplesund, S., Contreras, M., & Watts, C. (2015). Prevention of intimate partner violence and girls: What does the evidence say? The Lancet, 385(9977), 1555–1566. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61703-7
  • Eves, R. (2007). Exploring the role of men and masculinities in Papua New Guinea in the 21st century: How to address violence in ways that generate empowerment for both men and women. Caritas.
  • Gabrysch, S., Edwards, T., & Glynn, J. R. (2008). The role of context: Neighbourhood characteristics strongly influence HIV risk in young women in Ndola, Zambia. Tropical Medicine & International Health, 13(2), 162–170. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3156.2007.01986.x
  • García-Moreno, C., Jansen, H. A. F. M., Ellsberg, M., Heise, L., & Watts, C. (2005). WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic intimate partner violence: Initial results on prevalence, health outcomes and women’s responses. World Health Organization.
  • Goodson, A., & Hayes, B. E. (2021). Help-seeking behaviors of intimate partner violence victims: A cross-national analysis in developing nations. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(9–10), NP4705–NP4727. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518794508
  • Hameed, M., O'Doherty, L., Gilchrist, G., Tirado-Muñoz, J., Taft, A., Chondros, P., Feder, G., Tan, M., & Hegarty, K. (2020). Psychological therapies for women who experience intimate partner violence. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2020(7), CD013017. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD013017.pub2
  • Hancock, A. M. (2007). When multiplication doesn’t equal quick addition: Examining intersectionality as a research paradigm. Perspectives on Politics, 5(01), 63–79. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592707070065
  • Heise, L. L., & Kotsadam, A. (2015). Cross-national and multilevel correlates of partner violence: An analysis of data from population-based surveys. The Lancet Global Health, 3(6), e332–e340. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(15)00013-3
  • Hindin, M. J., Kishor, S., & Ansara, D. L. (2008). Intimate partner violence among couples in 10 DHS countries: Predictors and health outcomes (DHS Analytical Studies No. 18). Macro International Inc.
  • Huecker, M., King, K. C., & Jordan, G. A. (2021). Domestic violence. StatPearls. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499891/
  • Hughs, M., & Paxton, P. (2014). Women, politics, and power: A global perspective (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc.
  • Humm, M. (2003). The dictionary of feminist theory (2nd ed.). Edinburg University Press.
  • Jewkes, R. (2002). Intimate partner violence: Causes and prevention. The Lancet, 359(9315), 1423–1429. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08357-5
  • Jewkes, R., Levin, J., & Penn-Kekana, L. (2002). Risk factors for domestic violence: Findings from a South African cross-sectional study. Social Science & Medicine, 55(9), 1603–1617. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(01)00294-5
  • Kalichman, S. C., Simbayi, L. C., Cloete, A., Clayford, M., Arnolds, W., Mxoli, M., Smith, G., Cherry, C., Shefer, T., Crawford, M., & Kalichman, M. O. (2009). Integrated gender-based violence and HIV risk reduction intervention for South African men: Results of a quasi-experimental field trial. Prevention Science, 10(3), 260–269. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-009-0129-x
  • Kapiga, S., Harvey, S., Mshana, G., Hansen, C. H., Mtolela, G. J., Madaha, F., Hashim, R., Kapinga, I., Mosha, N., Abramsky, T., Lees, S., & Watts, C. (2019). A social empowerment intervention to prevent intimate partner Intimate partner violence in a microfinance scheme in Tanzania: Findings from the MAISHA cluster randomised controlled trial. The Lancet Global Health, 7(10), e1423–e1434. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(19)30316-X
  • Kavanagh, N. M., Marcus, N., Bosire, R., Otieno, B., Bair, E. F., Agot, K., & Thirumurthy, H. (2021). Health and economic outcomes associated with COVID-19 in women at high risk of HIV infection in rural Kenya. JAMA Network Open, 4(6), e2113787. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.13787
  • Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (2017). Women and men in Kenya, facts and figures 2017. KNBS. https://www.genderinkenya.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Women-and-Men-in-Kenya-Facts-and-Figures-2017.pdf
  • Kimuna, S. R., & Djamba, Y. K. (2008). Gender based violence: Correlates of physical and sexual wife abuse in Kenya. Journal of Family Violence, 23(5), 333–342. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-008-9156-9
  • Kohli, A., Perrin, N., Mpanano, R. M., Banywesize, L., Mirindi, A. B., Banywesize, J. H., Mitima, C. M., Binkurhorhwa, A. K., Bufole, N. M., & Glass, N. (2015). Family and community driven response to intimate partner violence in post-conflict settings. Social Science & Medicine, 146, 276–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.10.011
  • Krueger, R. A. (1994). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.
  • Krug, E. G., Mercy, J. A., Dahlberg, L. L., & Zwi, A. B. (2002). The world report on violence and health. The Lancet, 360(9339), 1083–1088. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11133-0
  • Lawson, J. (2012). Sociological theories of intimate partner violence. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 22(5), 572–590. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2011.598748
  • Leach, F., Fiscian, V., Kadzamira, E., Lemani, E., & Machakanja, P. (2003). An investigative study into the abuse of girls in African schools. Education Research, 56, 1-147. https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.12849
  • Levy, J. K., Darmstadt, G. L., Ashby, C., Quandt, M., Halsey, E., Nagar, A., & Greene, M. E. (2020). Characteristics of successful programmes targeting gender inequality and restrictive gender norms for the health and wellbeing of children, adolescents, and young adults: A systematic review. The Lancet Global Health, 8(2), e225–e236. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(19)30495-4
  • Liang, B., Goodman, L., Tummala-Narra, P., & Weintraub, S. (2005). A theoretical framework for understanding help-seeking processes among survivors of intimate partner violence. American Journal of Community Psychology, 36(1–2), 71–84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-005-6233-6
  • Magadi, M. A. (2016). Understanding the urban-rural disparity in HIV and poverty nexus: The case of Kenya. Journal of Public Health, 39(3), e63–e72. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdw065
  • Mansell, I., Bennett, G., Northway, R., Mead, D., & Moseley, L. (2004). The learning curve: The advantages and disadvantages in the use of focus groups as a method of data collection. Nurse Researcher, 11(4), 79–88. https://doi.org/10.7748/nr2004.07.11.4.79.c6217
  • Mbugua, R. W. (2017). Women’s organizations and collective action in Kenya: Opportunities and challenges–the case of the Maendeleo ya Wanawake Organization. Journal of the African Women's Studies Centre, 1(5), 1–12. http://journals.uonbi.ac.ke/index.php/aws
  • Mojola, S. A. (2014). Love, money, and HIV: Becoming a modern African woman in the age of AIDS. University of California Press.
  • Morgan, P., & Youssef, V. (2006). Writing rage: Unmasking violence in Caribbean discourse. University of the West Indies Press.
  • Mugoya, G. C. T., Witte, T. H., & Ernst, K. C. (2015). Sociocultural and victimization factors that impact attitudes toward intimate partner violence among Kenyan women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(16), 2851–2871. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514554287
  • Mutume, G. (2005, July). African women battle for equality. Africa Renewal. https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/july-2005/african-women-battle-equality
  • Muula, A. S. (2008). HIV infection and AIDS among young women in South Africa. Croatian Medical Journal, 49(3), 423–435. https://doi.org/10.3325/cmj.2008.3.423
  • Nabaggala, M. S., Reddy, T., & Manda, S. (2021). Effects of rural-urban residence and education on intimate partner violence among women in Sub-Saharan Africa: A meta-analysis of health survey data. BMC Women's Health, 21(1), 149. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-021-01286-5
  • Nikolova, S. P., & Small, E. (2018). Review of the evidence of gender-focused interventions including men to reduce HIV risk and Intimate partner violence in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of HIV/AIDS & Social Services, 17(2), 87–117. https://doi.org/10.1080/15381501.2017.1407727
  • Nyariro, M. P. (2018). Re-conceptualizing school continuation & re-entry policy for young mothers living in an urban slum context in Nairobi, Kenya: A participatory approach. Studies in Social Justice, 12(2), 310–328. https://doi.org/10.26522/ssj.v12i2.1624
  • Onyango, M. A., Adu-Sarkodie, Y., Agyarko-Poku, T., Asafo, M. K., Sylvester, J., Wondergem, P., Green, K., Wambugu, S., Brennan, A. T., & Beard, J. (2015). “It’s all about making a life”: Poverty, HIV, violence, and other vulnerabilities faced by young female sex workers in Kumasi, Ghana. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 68(Supplement 2), S131–S137. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0000000000000455
  • Patrikar, S., Basannar, D., Bhatti, V., Chatterjee, K., & Mahen, A. (2017). Association between intimate partner violence & HIV/AIDS: Exploring the pathways in Indian context. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 145(6), 815–823. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_1782_14
  • Paulson, J. L. (2020). Intimate partner violence and perinatal post-traumatic stress and depression symptoms: A systematic review of findings in longitudinal studies. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 1524838020976098. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838020976098
  • Pitpitan, E. V., Kalichman, S. C., Eaton, L. A., Strathdee, S. A., & Patterson, T. L. (2013). HIV/STI risk among venue-based female sex workers across the globe: A look back and the way forward. Current HIV/AIDS Reports, 10(1), 65–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11904-012-0142-8
  • Pronyk, P. M., Hargreaves, J. R., Kim, J. C., Morison, L. A., Phetla, G., Watts, C., Busza, J., & Porter, J. D. (2006). Effect of a structural intervention for the prevention of intimate-partner violence and HIV in rural South Africa: A cluster randomised trial. The Lancet, 368(9551), 1973–1983. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69744-4
  • Rico, M. J. E., & Mendez, J. H. M. (2015). Percepción de la experiencia de violencia doméstica en mujeres víctimas de maltrato de pareja. Universitas Psychologica, 14(3), 997–1008. https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.upsy14-3.pevd
  • Ridgeway, C. (2014). Why status matters for inequality. American Sociological Review, 79(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122413515997
  • Sarnquist, C., Omondi, B., Sinclair, J., Gitau, C., Paiva, L., Mulinge, M., Cornfield, D. N., & Maldonado, Y. (2014). Rape prevention through empowerment of adolescent girls. Pediatrics, 133(5), e1226–e1232. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-3414
  • Schuler, S. R., Lenzi, R., Nazneen, S., & Bates, L. M. (2013). Perceived decline in intimate partner violence in Bangladesh: Qualitative evidence. Studies in Family Planning, 44(3), 243–257. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00356.x
  • Seth, P., Wingood, G. M., Robinson, L. S., Raiford, J. L., & DiClemente, R. J. (2015). Abuse impedes prevention: The intersection of intimate partner violence and HIV/STI risk among young African American women. AIDS and Behavior, 19(8), 1438–1445. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-014-0940-7
  • Stöckl, H., Hassan, A., Ranganathan, M., & M Hatcher, A. (2021). Economic empowerment and intimate partner violence: a secondary data analysis of the cross-sectional demographic health surveys in sub-Saharan Africa. BMC Women's Health, 21(1), 241. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-021-01363-9
  • Tesch, R. (2013, September 30). Qualitative research: Analysis types and software tool. Routledge.
  • The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (2019, June 30). People living with HIV receiving. https://aidsinfo.unaids.org
  • The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (2014, March 10). A call to action against gender-based violence. https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/presscentre/featurestories/2014/march/20140307india
  • The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (2021, September 8). Gender based violence. https://www.unaids.org/en/keywords/gender-based-violence
  • The Well Project (2020, January 6). Intimate partner violence and HIV. https://www.thewellproject.org/hiv-information/violence-against-women-and-hiv
  • Thompson, M. P., Kaslow, N. J., Kingree, J. B., Rashid, A., Puett, R., Jacobs, D., & Matthews, A. (2000). Partner violence, social support, and distress among inner-city African American women. American Journal of Community Psychology, 28(1), 127–143. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005198514704
  • Timmermans, S. (2013). Seven warrants for qualitative health sociology. Social Science & Medicine, 77(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.10.004
  • Tong, A., Sainsbury, P., & Craig, J. (2007). Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ): A 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups. International Journal for Quality in Health Care, 19(6), 349–357. https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzm042
  • Uchem, R. N., & Ngwa, E. S. (2014). Subordination of women in 21st century Africa: Cultural sustainability or a new slavery? Implications for educational development. Developing Country Studies, 4(24).
  • Vlassoff, C. (2007). Gender differences in determinants and consequences of health and illness. Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition, 25(1), 47–61.
  • Vyas, S., & Watts, C. (2009). How does economic empowerment affect women’s risk of intimate partner violence in low and middle income countries? A systematic review of published evidence. Journal of International Development, 21(5), 577–602. https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.1500
  • Wafula, K. S. (2018, December). Initial environmental and social audit study report regional public health laboratory, Busia County. World Bank. http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/592301562580060472/pdf/Initial-Environmental-Audit-Study-Report-for-Busia-Town.pdf
  • Ward, J., Horwood, C., McEvoy, C., Shipman, P., & Rumble, L. (2007, January). The shame of war: Sexual intimate partner violence and girls in conflict. Integrated Regional Information Networks, UN Office for the Coordination of Human Affairs. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/594625?ln=en
  • Weiner, G. (2004). Critical action research and third wave feminism: A meeting of paradigms. Educational Action Research, 12(4), 631–644. https://doi.org/10.1080/09650790400200261
  • Weinhardt, L. S., & Carey, M. P. (2000). Does alcohol lead to sexual risk behavior? Findings from event-level research. Annual Review of Sex Research, 11, 125–157.
  • World Bank (2014, October 10). Voice and agency: Empowering women and girls for shared prosperity. World Bank. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/gender/publication/voice-and-agency-empowering-women-and-girls-for-shared-prosperity
  • World Health Organization (2013). Violence against women and HIV. Retrieved January 1, 2022, from https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/violence/hiv/en/
  • World Health Organization (2006, January 16–18). Addressing intimate partner violence in HIV testing and counselling (A meeting report). World Health Organization.
  • World Health Organization (2009). Promoting gender equality to prevent violence against women. WHO Press.
  • World Health Organization (2013). Global and regional estimates of Intimate partner violence: Prevalence and health effects of intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence: Executive summary. World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/85241
  • World Health Organization (2021, March 9). Violence against women. WHO. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/violence-against-women
  • Yakubovich, A. R., Stöckl, H., Murray, J., Melendez-Torres, G. J., Steinert, J. I., Glavin, C. E. Y., & Humphreys, D. K. (2018). Risk and protective factors for intimate partner Intimate partner violence: Systematic review and meta-analyses of prospective–longitudinal studies. American Journal of Public Health, 108(7), e1–e11. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304428

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.