References
- Abenavoli, R. M. (2019). The mechanisms and moderators of “fade-out”: Towards understanding why the skills of early childhood program participants converge over time with the skills of other children. Psychological Bulletin, 145(12), 1103–1127. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000212
- Abenavoli, R. M., Greenberg, M. T., & Bierman, K. L. (2017). Identification and validation of school readiness profiles among high-risk kindergartners. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 38, 33–43. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2016.09.001
- Acar, I. H., Torquati, J. C., Raikes, H., & Rudasill, K. M. (2020). Pathways to low-income children’s self-regulation: Child temperament and the qualities of teacher-child relationships. Early Education and Development, 1–19. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2020.1830465
- Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Erlbaum.
- Allison, P. D. (2002). Missing data. Sage.
- Ansari, A., Hofkens, T. L., & Pianta, R. C. (2020). Teacher-child relationships across the first seven years of education and adolescent outcomes. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 71, 101200. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2020.101200
- Ansari, A., Lopez, M., Manfra, L., Bleiker, C., Dinehart, L. H. B., Hartman, S. C., & Winsler, A. (2017). Differential third-grade outcomes associated with attending publicly funded preschool programs for low-income Latino children. Child Development, 88(5), 1743–1756. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12663
- Ansari, A., Pianta, R. C., Whittaker, J. V., Vitiello, V. E., & Ruzek, E. A. (2020). Persistence and convergence: The end of kindergarten outcomes of pre-k graduates and their nonattending peers. Developmental Psychology, 56(11), 2027–2039. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001115
- Bacher, J., Knut, W., & Vogler, M. (2007). SPSS TwoStep Cluster – A first evaluation. Social Sciences Open Access. https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar–327153
- Baddeley, A. (2010). Working memory. Current Biology, 20(4), 136–140. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2009.12.014
- Bailey, R., Barnes, S. P., Park, C., Sokolovic, N., & Jones, S. M. (2018). Executive function mapping project measures compendium: A resource for selecting measures related to executive function and other regulation-related skills in early childhood (OPRE Report No. 2018-59). Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/opre/e_mapping_measures_full_document_pjg_508_bluelinksfinal.PDF
- Bassok, D., & Engel, M. (2019). Early childhood education at scale: Lessons from research for policy and practice. AERA Open, 5(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858419828690
- Bates, L. A., & Glick, J. E. (2013). Does it matter if teachers and schools match the student? Racial and ethnic disparities in problem behaviors. Social Science Research, 42(5), 1180–1190. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2013.04.005
- Benassi, M., Garofalo, S., Ambrosini, F., Sant’Angelo, R. P., Raggini, R., DePaoli, G., Ravani, C., Giovagnoli, S., Orsoni, M., & Piraccini, G. (2020). Using two-step cluster analysis and latent class cluster analysis to classify the cognitive heterogeneity of cross-diagnostic psychiatric inpatients. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1–11. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01085
- Bernier, A., Carlson, S. M., & Whipple, N. (2010). From external regulation to self-regulation: Early parenting precursors of young children’s executive functioning. Child Development, 81(1), 326–339. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01397.x
- Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Development, 81(6), 1641–1660. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01499.x
- Bialystok, E. (2013). Bilingualism and executive function: What’s the connection? In D. Miller, F. Bayram, J. Rothman, & L. Serrartice (Eds.), Bilingual, cognition, and language: The state of the science across subfields (pp. 283–305). John Benjamins Publishing Co.
- Blair, C., McKinnon, R. D., & Daneri, M. P. (2018). Effect of the tools of the mind kindergarten program on children’s social and emotional development. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 43, 52–61. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.01.002
- Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (2006). Self-regulation as a key to school readiness: How early childhood teachers can promote this critical competency. In M. Zaslow & I. Martinez-Beck (Eds.), Critical issues in early childhood development (pp. 203–224). Brookes Publishing.
- Botting, N., Jones, A., Marshall, C., Denmark, T., Atkinson, J., & Morgan, G. (2017). Nonverbal executive function is mediated by language: A study of deaf and hearing children. Child Development, 88(5), 1689–1700. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12659
- Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol. 2. Separation: Anxiety and anger. Basic Books.
- Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human development: Research perspectives. Developmental Psychology, 22(6), 723–742. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.22.6.723
- Bruner, J. (1996). The culture of education. Harvard University Press.
- Burchinal, M., Carr, R. C., Vernon-Feagans, L., Blair, C., Cox, M., & the Family Life Project Key Investigators. (2018). Depth, persistence, and timing of poverty and the development of school readiness skills in rural low-income regions: Results from the family life project. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 45, 115–130. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.07.002
- Burchinal, M., Foster, T. J., Bezdek, K. G., Bratsch-Hines, M., Blair, C., & Vernon-Feagans, L., & the Family Life Project Key Investigators. (2020). School-entry skills predicting school-age academic and social-emotional trajectories. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 51, 67–80. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2019.08.004
- Cabell, S. Q., Justice, L. M., Konold, T. R., & McGinty, A. S. (2011). Profiles of emergent literacy skills among preschool children who are at risk for academic difficulties. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 26(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2010.05.003
- Cadima, J., Barros, S., Ferreira, T., Serra-Lemos, M., Leal, T., & Verschueren, K. (2019). Bidirectional associations between vocabulary and self-regulation in preschool and their interplay with teacher-child closeness and autonomy support. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 46, 75–86. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.04.004
- Cameron, C. E., Kim, H., Duncan, R. J., Becker, D. R., & McClelland, M. M. (2019). Bidirectional and co-developing associations of cognitive, mathematics, and literacy skills during kindergarten. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 62, 135–144. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2019.02.004
- Cappella, E., Hamre, B. K., Kim, H. Y., Henry, D. B., Frazier, S. L., Atkins, M. S., & Schoenwald, S. K. (2012). Teacher consultation and coaching within mental health practice: Classroom and child effects in urban elementary schools. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80(4), 597–610. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027725
- Carlson, S. M., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2008). Bilingual experience and executive functioning in young children. Developmental Science, 11(2), 282–298. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00675.x
- Chen, S. H., Main, A., Zhou, Q., Bunge, S. A., Lau, N., & Chu, K. (2015). Effortful control and early academic achievement of Chinese American children in immigrant families. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 30, 45–56. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.08.004
- Choi, J. Y., Jeon, S., & Lippard, C. (2018). Dual language learning, inhibitory control, and math achievement in Head Start and kindergarten. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 42, 66–78. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2017.09.001
- Claessens, A., Engel, M., & Curran, F. C. (2014). Academic content, student learning, and the persistence of preschool effects. American Educational Research Journal, 51(2), 403–434. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831213513634
- Conway, A., & Stifter, C. A. (2012). Longitudinal antecedents of executive function in preschoolers. Child Development, 83(3), 1022–1036. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01756.x
- Conway, A., Waldfogel, J., & Wang, Y. (2019). Disparities in kindergartners’ executive functions at kindergarten entry: Relations with parenting and child care. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 48, 267–283. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2019.03.009
- Crespo, L. M., Trentacosta, C. J., Udo-Inyang, I., Northerner, L., Chaudhry, K., & Williams, A. (2019). Self-regulation mitigates the association between household chaos and children’s behaviors problems. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 60, 56–64. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2018.10.005
- Daneri, M. P., Blair, C., & Kuhn, L. J., & the Family Life Project Key Investigators. (2019). Maternal language and child vocabulary mediate relations between socioeconomic status and executive function during early childhood. Child Development, 90(6), 2001–2018. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13065
- Davidson, M. C., Amso, D., Anderson, L. C., & Diamon, A. (2006). Development of cognitive control and executive functions from 4 to 13 years: Evidence from manipulation of memory, inhibition, and task switching. Neuropsychologia, 44(11), 2037–2078. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.02.006
- Decker, S. L., Davis, A. S., Eason, M., Bridges, R., & Vasel, L. M. (2016). Assessment of executive functions using the Woodcock-Johnson IV tests of cognitive abilities (Woodcock-Johnson IV assessment service bulletin, no. 9). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. https://www.hmhco.com/~/media/sites/home/hmh-assessments/clinical/woodcock-johnson/pdf/wjiv/wjiv_asb_9.pdf?la=en
- Delpit, L. (2006). Other people’s children: Cultural conflict in the classroom. New Press.
- Desimone, L. M., & Long, D. (2010). Teacher effects and the achievement gap: Do teacher and teaching quality influence the achievement gap between Black and White and high- and low-SES students in the early grades? Teachers College Record, 112(12), 3024–3073. http://www.core-nmsu.org/uploads/6/6/8/0/66809551/teacher_achivements_and_the_achievement_gap.pdf
- Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333(6045), 959–964. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204529
- Dilworth-Bart, J. E. (2012). Does executive function mediate SES and home quality associations with academic readiness? Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27(3), 416–425. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2012.02.002
- DiStefano, C., & Kamphaus, R. W. (2006). Investigating subtypes of child development: A comparison of cluster analysis and latent class cluster analysis in typology creation. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66(5), 778–794. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164405284033
- Downer, J. T., Goble, P., Myers, S. S., & Pianta, R. C. (2016). Teacher-child racial/ethnic match within pre-kindergarten classrooms and children’s social adjustment. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 37, 26–38. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2016.02.007
- Downey, D. B., & Pribesh, S. (2004, October). When race matters: Teachers’ evaluation of students’ classroom behavior. Sociology of Education, 77(4), 267–282. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/003804070407700401
- Downey, D. B., von Hippel, P. T., & Broh, B. A. (2004). Are schools the great equalizer? Cognitive inequality during the summer months and the school year. American Sociological Review, 69(5), 613–635. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240406900501
- Dumont, H., & Ready, D. D. (2020). Do schools reduce or exacerbate inequality? How the associations between student achievement and achievement growth influence our understanding of the role of schooling. American Educational Research Journal, 57(2), 728–774. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831219868182
- Duncan, G. J., & Magnuson, K. (2011). The nature and impact of early achievement skills, attention skills, and behavior problems. In G. J. Duncan & R. J. Murnane (Eds.), Whither opportunity? Rising in equality, schools, and children’s life chances (pp. 47–70). Russell Sage Foundation.
- Duncan, G. J., & Magnuson, K. (2012). Socioeconomic status and cognitive functioning: Moving from correlation to causation. Cognitive Science, 3(3), 377–386. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1176
- Egalite, A. J., & Kisida, B. (2018). The effects of teacher match on students’ academic perceptions and attitudes. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 40(1), 59.81. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373717714056
- Enders, C. K. (2017). Multiple imputation as a flexible tool for missing data handling in clinical research. Behavior Research and Therapy, 98, 4–18. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2016.11.008
- Engel, M., Claessens, A., Watts, T., & Farkas, G. (2016). Mathematics content coverage and student learning in kindergarten. Educational Researcher, 45(5), 293–300. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X16656841
- Everitt, B. S., Landau, S., Leese, M., & Stahl, D. (2011). Cluster analysis (5th ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
- Franko, M. D., Zhang, D., & Hesbol, K. (2018). Alignment of learning experiences from prekindergarten to kindergarten: Exploring group classifications using cluster analysis. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 16(3), 229–244. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1476718X18775761
- Fryer, R. G., & Levitt, S. D. (2004). Understanding the Black-White test score gap in the first two years of school. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 86(2), 447–464. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1162/003465304323031049
- Fuller, B., & Garcia Coll, C. (2010). Learning from Latinos: Contexts, families, and child development in motion. Developmental Psychology, 46(3), 559–565. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019412
- Galindo, C., & Fuller, B. (2010). The social competence of Latino kindergartners and growth in mathematical understanding. Developmental Psychology, 46(3), 579–592. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017821
- Gershenson, S., Hart, C. M. D., Hyman, J., Lindsay, C., & Papageorge, N. W. (2018). The long-run impacts of same-race teachers (NBER working paper no. 25254). National Bureau of Economic Research.
- Gilliam, W. (2005). Prekindergartners left behind: Expulsion rates in state prekindergarten systems. Foundation for Child Development.
- Gilliam, W. S., Maupin, A. N., & Reyes, C. R. (2016). Early childhood mental health consultation: Results of a statewide random-controlled evaluation. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 55(9), 754–761. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2016.06.006
- Gilliam, W. S., Maupin, A. N., Reyes, C. R., Accavitti, M., & Shic, F. (2016). Do early educators’ implicit biases regarding sex and race relate to behavior expectations and recommendation of preschool expulsions and suspensions? Yale Child Study Center.
- Gottfried, M. (2012). Peer effects in urban schools: Assessing the impact of classroom composition on student achievement. Educational Policy, 28(5), 607–647. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904812467082
- Greenfader, C. M. (2019). What is the role of executive function in the school readiness of Latino students? Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 49, 93–108. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2019.02.011
- Grund, S., Ludtke, O., & Robitzsch, A. (2018). Multiple imputation of missing data for multilevel models: Simulations and recommendations. Organizational Research Methods, 21(1), 111–149. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428117703686
- Gutiérrez, K. D., & Rogoff, B. (2003). Cultural ways of learning: Individual traits or repertoires of practice. Educational Researcher, 32(5), 19–25. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X032005019
- Halle, T. G., Hair, E. C., Wandner, L. D., & Chien, N. C. (2012). Profiles of school readiness among four-year-old Head Start children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27(4), 613–626. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2012.04.001
- Hamre, B., Hatfield, B., Pianta, R., & Jamil, F. (2014). Evidence for general and domain-specific elements of teacher-child interactions: Associations with preschool children’s development. Child Development, 85(3), 1257–1274. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12184
- Hamre, B. K., & Pianta, R. C. (2001). Early teacher-child relationships and the trajectory of children’s school outcomes through eighth grade. Child Development, 72(2), 625–638. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00301
- Hanushek, E. A., Kain, J. F., Markman, J. M., & Rivkin, S. G. (2003). Does peer ability affect student achievement? Journal of Applied Econometrics, 18(5), 527–544. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.741
- Hartanto, A., Toh, W. X., & Yang, H. (2019). Bilingualism narrows socioeconomic disparities in executive functions and self-regulatory behaviors during early childhood: Evidence from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study. Child Development, 90(4), 1215–12135. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13032
- Hasbrouck, S. L., & Pianta, R. (2016). Understanding child care quality and implications for dual language learners. In K. E. Sanders & A. W. Guerra (Eds.), The culture of child care: Attachment, peers, and quality in diverse communities (pp. 27–43). Oxford University Press.
- Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words: Language, life, and work in communities and classrooms. Cambridge University Press.
- Holochwost, S. J., Gariepy, J.-L., Propper, C. B., Gardner-Neblett, N., Volpe, V., Neblett, E., & Mills-Koonce, W. R. (2016). Sociodemographic risk, parenting, and executive functions in early childhood: The role of ethnicity. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 36, 537–549. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2016.02.001
- Hopkins, M., Gluckman, M., & Vahdani, T. (2019). Emergent change: A network analysis of elementary teachers’ learning about English learner instruction. American Educational Research Journal, 56(6), 2295–2332. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831219840352
- Howes, C. (2016). Children and child care: A theory of relationships within cultural communities. In K. E. Sanders & A. W. Guerra (Eds.), The culture of child care: Attachment, peers, and quality in diverse communities (pp. 3–24). Oxford University Press.
- Howes, C., Burchinal, M., Pianta, R., Bryant, D., Early, D., Clifford, R., & Barbarin, O. (2008). Ready to learn? Children’s pre-academic achievement in pre-kindergarten programs. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 23(1), 27–50. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2007.05.002
- Howes, C., Guerra, A. W., Fuligni, A., Zucker, E., Lee, L., Obregon, N. B., & Spivak, A. (2011). Classroom dimensions predict early peer interaction when children are diverse in ethnicity, race, and home language. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 26(4), 399–408. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2011.02.004
- Hox, J. J., van Buuren, S., & Jolani, S. (2016). Incomplete multilevel data. In J. Harring, L. M. Stapleton, & S. N. Beretvas (Eds.), Advances in multilevel modeling for educational research: Addressing practical issues found in real-world applications (pp. 39–62). Information Age.
- Iruka, I. U., Curenton, S. M., Sims, J., Blitch, K. A., & Gardner, S. (2020). Factors associated with early school readiness profiles for Black girls. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 51, 215–228. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2019.10.012
- Jerome, E. M., Hamre, B. K., & Pianta, R. C. (2009). Teacher-child relationships from kindergarten to sixth grade: Early childhood predictors of teacher-perceived conflict and closeness. Social Development, 18(4), 915–945. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2008.00508.x
- Jones, S. M., Bailey, R., Barnes, S. P., & Partee, A. (2016). Executive function mapping project: Untangling the terms and skills related to executive function and self-regulation in early childhood (OPRE Report No. 2016-88). Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, Administration for Children and Families, U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/opre/resource/untangling-the-terms-and-skills-related-to-executive-function-and-self-regulation-in-early-childhood
- Jones, S. M., Bub, K. L., & Raver, C. C. (2013). Unpacking the black box of the Chicago School Readiness Project Intervention: The mediating roles of teacher-child relationship quality and self-regulation. Early Education and Development, 24(7), 1043–1064. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2013.825188
- Joshi, E., Doan, S., & Springer, M. G. (2018). Student-teacher race congruence: New evidence and insight from Tennessee. AERA Open, 4(4), 1–25. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858418817528
- Kaufman, L., & Rousseeuw, P. J. (1990). Finding groups in data: An introduction to cluster analysis. John Wiley & Sons.
- Keels, M. (2009). Ethnic group differences in early head start parents’ parenting beliefs and practices and links to children’s early cognitive development. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 24(4), 381–397. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.08.002
- Kent, P., Jensen, R. K., & Kongsted, A. (2014). A comparison of three clustering methods for finding subgroups in MRI, SMS, or clinical data: SPSS TwoStep Cluster analysis, Latent Gold, and SNOB. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 14(113), 1–14. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-14-113
- Kincade, L., Cook, C., & Goerdt, A. (2020). Meta-analysis and common practice elements of universal approaches to improving student-teacher relationships. Review of Educational Research, 90(5), 710–748. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654320946836
- Kuhn, L. J., Willoughby, M. T., Wilbourn, M. P., Vernon-Feagans, L., & Blair, C. B., & the Family Life Project Key Investigators. (2014). Early communicative gestures prospectively predict language development and executive function in early childhood. Child Development, 85(5), 1898–1914. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12249
- Labella, M. H., Narayan, A. J., McCormick, C. M., Desjardins, C. D., & Masten, A. S. (2019). Risk and adversity, parenting quality, and children’s social-emotional adjustment in families experiencing homelessness. Child Development, 90(1), 227–244. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12894
- Lan, X., Legare, C. H., Ponitz, C. C., Li, S., & Morrison, F. J. (2011). Investigating the links between the subcomponents of executive function and academic achievement: A cross-cultural analysis of Chinese and American preschoolers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108(3), 677–692. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2010.11.001
- Lankford, H., Loeb, S., & Wyckoff, J. (2002). Teacher sorting and the plight of urban schools: A descriptive analysis. Education Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 24, 37–62. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737024001037
- Levin, H. (2007). On the relationship between poverty and curriculum. North Carolina Law Review Association, 85(5), 1381–1418.
- Li-Grining, C. P. (2012). The role of cultural factors in the development of Latino preschoolers’ self-regulation. Child Development Perspectives, 6(3), 210–217. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00255.x
- Little, M. (2017). Racial and socioeconomic gaps in executive function skills in early elementary school: Nationally representative evidence from the ECLS-K:2011. Educational Researcher, 46(2), 103–109. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X17698700
- Little, R. J. A., & Rubin, D. B. (1987). Statistical analysis with missing data. John Wiley & Sons.
- McClelland, M. M., Tominey, S. L., Schmitt, S. A., & Duncan, R. (2017). SEL interventions in early childhood. Future of Children, 27(1), 33–47. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2017.0002
- McDermott, P. A., Watkins, M. W., Rovine, M. J., Rikoon, S. H., Irwin, C. W., Reyes, R., & Chao, J. L. (2019). Emergent growth patterns of early education self-control problems among children from under-resourced American families. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 48, 1–13. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.08.010
- McFarland, J., Hussar, B., Zhang, J., Wang, X., Wang, K., Hein, S., Diliberti, M., Cataldi, E. F., Mann, F. B., & Barmer, A. (2019). The condition of education 2019 (NCES 2019-144). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2019144
- McKinnon, R. D., & Blair, C., & the Family Life Project Key Investigators. (2018). Does early executive function predict teacher-child relationships from kindergarten to second grade. Developmental Psychology, 54(11), 2053–2066. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000584
- McKinnon, R. D., & Blair, C. (2019). Bidirectional relations among executive function, teacher-child relationships, and early reading and math achievement: A cross-lagged panel analysis. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 46, 152–165. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.03.011
- Meixner, J. M., Warner, G. J., Lensing, N., Schiefele, U., & Elsner, B. (2019). The relationship between executive functions and reading comprehension in primary-school students: A cross-lagged panel analysis. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 46, 62–74. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.04.010
- Milbrath, C., & Guhn, M. (2019). Neighborhood culture and immigrant children’s developmental outcomes at kindergarten. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 48, 198–214. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2019.03.006
- Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., & Howerter, A. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–1000. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
- Montroy, J., Bowles, R. P., & Skibbe, L. E. (2016a). The effects of peers’ self-regulation on preschooler’s self-regulation and literacy growth. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 46, 73–83. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2016.09.001
- Montroy, J., Bowles, R. P., Skibbe, L. E., McClelland, M. M., & Morrison, F. J. (2016b). The development of self-regulation across early childhood. Developmental Psychology, 52(11), 1744–1762. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000159
- Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Wang, Y., Hillemeier, M. M., Oh, Y., & Maczuga, S. (2019). Executive function deficits in kindergarten predict repeated academic difficulties across elementary school. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 46, 20–32. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.06.009
- Nesbitt, K. T., Baker-Ward, L., & Willoughby, M. T. (2013). Executive function mediates socio-economic and racial differences in early academic achievement. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28(4), 774–783. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2013.07.005
- Nesbitt, K. T., Fuhs, M. W., & Farran, D. C. (2019). Stability and instability in the co-development of mathematics, executive function skills, and visual-motor integration from prekindergarten to first grade. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 46, 262–274. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.02.003
- Newsom, J. (2019). Example R2 computation. Psy526/626 Multilevel Regression. Retrieved from http://web.pdx.edu/~newsomj/mlrclass/ho_r2.pdf
- Ng, F. F., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Yoshikawa, H., & Sze, I. N. (2015). Inhibitory control in preschool predicts early math skills in first grade: Evidence from an ethnically diverse sample. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 39(2), 139–149. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025414538558
- Nguyen, T., Ansari, A., Pianta, R. C., Whittaker, J. V., Vitiello, V., & Ruzek, E. (2020). The classroom relational environment and children’s early development in preschool. Social Development, 1–21. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12447
- Nguyen, T., & Duncan, G. J. (2019). Kindergarten components of executive function and third grade achievement: A national study. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 46, 49–61. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.05.006
- Nisbett, R. E. (2013). The geography of thought. Free Press.
- Noble, K. G., Norman, M. F., & Farah, M. J. (2005). Neurocognitive correlates of socioeconomic status in kindergarten children. Developmental Science, 8(1), 74–87. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2005.00394.x
- Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation (OPRE). (2016). What works, under what circumstance, and how? Methods for unpacking the “black box” of programs and policies (OPRE Report No. 2016-54). OPRE, Administration for Children and Families, U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.researchconnections.org/childcare/resources/32514/pdf
- Palacios, N., & Bohlmann, N. L. (2020). Self-regulation mediates the associations between demographic characteristics and Latino children’s early achievement. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 70, 101166. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2020.101166
- Palardy, G. (2015). Classroom-based inequalities and achievement gaps in first grade: The role of classroom context and access to qualified and effective teachers. Teachers College Record, 117, 1–48. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gregory_Palardy/publication/279321201_Classroom-based_Inequalities_and_Achievement_Gaps_in_First_Grade_The_Role_of_Classroom_Context_and_Access_to_Qualified_and_Effective_Teachers/links/5c65f4ad92851c48a9d4d148/Classroom-based-Inequalities-and-Achievement-Gaps-in-First-Grade-The-Role-of-Classroom-Context-and-Access-to-Qualified-and-Effective-Teachers.pdf
- Pianta, R. C. (2001). Student teacher relationship scale. Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.
- Portilla, X. A., Ballarad, P. J., Adler, N. E., Boyce, W. T., & Obradovic, J. (2014). An integrative view of school functioning: Transactions between self-regulation, school engagement, and teacher-child relationship quality. Child Development, 85(5), 1915–1931. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12259
- Quinn, D. M. (2015). Kindergarten Black-White test score gaps: Re-examining the roles of socio-economic status and school quality with new data. Sociology of Education, 88(2), 120–139. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040715573027
- Raudenbush, S. W. (2009). Adaptive centering with random effects: An alternate to the fixed effects model for studying time-varying treatments in school settings. Education Finance and Policy, 4(4), 468–491. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1162/edfp.2009.4.4.468
- Raver, C. C., & Blair, C. (2016). Neuroscientific insights: Attention, working memory, and inhibitory control. Future of Children, 26(2), 95–108. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2016.0014
- Raver, C. C., Jones, S. M., Li-Grining, C., Zhai, F., Bub, K., & Pressler, E. (2011). CSRP’s impact on low-income preschoolers’ preacademic skills: Self-regulation as a mediating mechanism. Child Development, 82(1), 362–378. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01561.x
- Ready, D. D. (2013). Associations between student achievement and student learning: Implications for value-added school accountability models. Educational Policy, 27(1), 92–120. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904811429289
- Ready, D. D., & Reid, J. L. (2019). Children’s executive function development and school socio-economic and racial/ethnic composition. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 47, 457–471. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.08.002
- Rogoff, B., Najafi, B., & Mejía-Arauz, R. (2014). Constellations of cultural practices across generations: Indigenous American heritage and learning by observing and pitching in. Human Development, 57(2–3), 82–95. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1159/000356761
- Sabol, T. J., Bohlmann, N. L., & Downer, J. T. (2018). Low-income ethnically diverse children’s engagement as a predictor of school readiness above preschool classroom quality. Child Development, 89(2), 556–576. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12832
- Sandilos, L. E., Whittaker, J. V., Vitiello, V. E., & Kinzie, M. B. (2019). Preschoolers’ school readiness profiles and the teacher-child relationship: A latent transition approach. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 62, 185–198. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2019.02.010
- Santillan, J., & Khurana, A. (2017). Developmental associations between bilingual experience and inhibitory control trajectories in Head Start children. Developmental Science, 21(4), 1–13. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12624
- Sasser, T. R., Bierman, K. L., Heinrichs, B., & Nix, R. L. (2017). Preschool intervention can promote sustained growth in the executive-function skills of children exhibiting early deficits. Psychological Science, 28(12), 1719–1730. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617711640
- Schafer, J. L. (1997). Analysis of incomplete multivariate data. Chapman & Hall.
- Schrank, F. A., McGrew, K. S., & Woodcock, R. W. (2001). Technical abstract (Woodcock-Johnson III assessment service bulletin no. 2). Riverside Publishing.
- Shweder, R. A., Goodnow, J., Hatano, G., LeVine, R., Markus, H., & Miller, P. (2006). The cultural psychology of development: One mind, many mentalities. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child development (pp. 716–792). Wiley.
- Skibbe, L. E., Montroy, J. J., Bowles, R. P., & Morrison, F. J. (2019). Self-regulation and the development of literacy and language achievement from preschool through second grade. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 46, 240–251. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.02.005
- Slopen, N., Shonkoff, J. P., Albert, M. A., Yoshikawa, H., Jacobs, A., Stoltz, R., & Williams, D. R. (2016). Racial disparities in child adversity in the U. S.: Interactions with family immigration history and income. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 50(1), 47–56. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2015.06.013
- Son, S.-H. C. (2019). Reciprocal associations between inhibitory control and early academic skills: Evidence from a nationally representative sample of Head Start children. Early Education and Development, 30(4), 456–477. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2019.1572382
- Sutherland, K. S., Conroy, M. A., Algina, J., Ladwig, C., Jessee, G., & Gyure, M. (2018). Reducing child problem behaviors and improving teacher-child interactions and relationships: A randomized controlled trial of BEST in CLASS. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 42, 31–43. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2017.08.001
- Tamis‐LeMonda, C. S., Song, L., Leavell, A. S., Kahana‐Kalman, R., & Yoshikawa, H. (2012). Ethnic differences in mother–infant language and gestural communications are associated with specific skills in infants. Developmental Science, 15(3), 384–397. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2012.01136.x
- Tourangeau, K., Nord, C., Lê, T., Wallner-Allen, K., Vaden-Kiernan, N., Blaker, L., & Najarian, M. (2017). Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, kindergarten class of 2010–11 (ECLS-K:2011) User’s manual for the ECLS-K:2011 kindergarten–second grade data file and electronic codebook, public version (NCES 2017-285). U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics.
- Valiente, C., Parker, J. H., Swanson, J., Bradley, R. H., & Groh, B. M. (2019). Early elementary student-teacher relationship trajectories predict girls’ math and boys’ reading achievement. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 49, 109–121. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2019.05.001
- Van den Bergh, L., Denessen, E., Hornstra, L., Voeten, M., & Holland, R. W. (2010). The implicit prejudiced attitudes of teachers relations to teacher expectations and the ethnic achievement gap. American Educational Research Journal, 47(2), 497–527. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831209353594
- von Hippel, P. T., & Hamrock, C. (2019). Do test score gaps grow before, during, or between the school years? Measurement artifacts and what we can know in spite of them. Sociological Science, 6, 43–80. https://doi.org/https://dx.doi.org/10.15195/V6.A3
- Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). Problems of general psychology. Plenum Press.
- Wanless, S. B., Kim, K. H., Zhang, C., Degol, J. L., Chen, J. L., & Chen, F. M. (2016). Trajectories of behavioral regulation for Taiwanese children from 3.5 to 6 years and relations to math and vocabulary outcomes. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 34, 104–114. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.10.001
- Wanless, S. B., McClelland, M. M., Tominey, S. L., & Acock, A. C. (2011). The influence of demographic risk factors on children’s behavioral regulation in prekindergarten and kindergarten. Early Education and Development, 22(3), 461–488. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2011.536132
- Weiland, C. (2016). Impacts of the Boston prekindergarten program on the school readiness of young children with special needs. Developmental Psychology, 52(11), 1763–1776. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000168
- Weiland, C., & Yoshikawa, H. (2014). Does higher peer socio-economic status predict children’s language and executive skills gains in prekindergarten? Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 35(5), 422–432. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2014.07.001
- Wexler, B. E., Imal, A. E., Pittman, B., & Bell, M. D. (2020). Executive function deficits mediate poverty’s effects on academic achievements: Target for intervention in at-risk children. Creative Education, 11(3), 406–419. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2020.113029
- Winsler, A., Burchinal, M. R., Tien, H.-C., Peisner-Feinberg, E., Espinosa, L., Castro, D. C., LaForett, D. R., Kim, Y. K., & DeFeyter, J. (2014). Early development among dual language learners: The roles of language use at home, maternal immigration, country of origin, and socio-demographic variables. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 29(4), 750–764. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.02.008
- Woodcock, R. W., McGrew, K. S., & Mather, N. (2001). Woodcock-Johnson III tests of cognitive abilities. Riverside Publishing.
- Xing, X., Liu, X., & Wang, M. (2019). Parental warmth and harsh discipline as mediators of the relations between family SES and Chinese preschooler’s inhibitory control. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 48, 237–245. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.12.018
- Yarnell, L. M., & Bohrnstedt, G. W. (2018). Student-teacher racial ethnic match and its association with Black student achievement: An exploration using multilevel structural equation modeling. American Educational Research Journal, 55(2), 287–324. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831217734804
- Yoshikawa, H., Weiland, C., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2016). When does preschool matter? Future of Children, 26(2), 21–35. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2016.0010
- Zelazo, P. D. (2006). The dimensional change card sort (DCCS): A method of assessing executive function in children. Nature Protocols, 1(1), 297–301. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1038/nprot.2006.46
- Zendarski, N., Haebich, K., Bhide, S., Quek, J., Nicholson, J. N., Jacobs, K. E., Efron, D., & Sciberras, E. (2020). Student-teacher relationship quality in children with and without ADHD: A cross-sectional community-based study. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 51, 275–284. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2019.12.006
- Zimmer, R. W., & Toma, E. F. (2000). Peer effects in private and public schools across countries. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 19(1), 75–92. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6688(200024)19:1<75::AID-PAM5>3.0.CO;2-W