44
Views
12
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Hearing versus Seeing: A Comparison of Consumer Learning of Spoken and Pictorial Information in Television Advertising

&
Pages 1-20 | Published online: 08 May 2012

References

  • Abernethy , Avery M. 1991 . “Television Exposure: Programs vs. Advertising,” . Current Issues and Research in Advertising , 13 ( 1&2 ) : 62 – 77 .
  • Alesandrini , Kathryn L. 1982 . “Imagery-Eliciting Strategies and Meaningful Learning,” . Journal of Mental Imagery , 6 ( 1 ) : 125 – 140 .
  • Allen , Charles . 1965 . “Photographing the TV Audience,” . Journal of Advertising Research , 5 ( March ) : 2 – 8 .
  • Anderson , Daniel R. 1985 . “On-line Cognitive Processing of Television,” . In Psychological Processes and Advertising Effects , Edited by: Alwitt , L. F. and Mitchell , A. A. Hillsdale , N.J. : Erlbaum Associates .
  • Anderson , John R. and Bower , Gordon H. 1972 . “Recognition and Retrieval Processes in Free Recall,” . Psychological Review , 79 ( March ) : 97 – 123 .
  • Andreoli , Virginia and Worchel , Stephen . 1978 . “Effects of Media, Communicator and Message Position on Attitude Change,” . Public Opinion Quarterly , 42 ( Spring ) : 59 – 70 .
  • Babbit , Brian C. 1982 . “Effects of Task Demands on Dual Coding of Pictorial Stimuli,” . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition , 8 ( January ) : 73 – 80 .
  • Baggett , Patricia . 1979 . “Structurally Equivalent Stories in Movie and Text and the Effect of the Medium on Recall,” . Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior , 18 ( June ) : 333 – 356 .
  • Baggett , Patricia and Ehrenfeucht , Andrzej . 1982 . “Information in Content Equivalent Movie and Text Stories,” . Discourse Processes , 5 : 73 – 99 .
  • Banker , G. S. and Meringoff , L. K. 1982 . Without Words: The Meaning Children Derive from a Nonverbal Film Story , Harvard Project Zero, Harvard University . Technical Report
  • Batra , Rajeev and Ray , Michael L. 1985 . “How Advertising Works at Contact.” . In Psychological Processes and Advertising Effects , Edited by: Alwitt , Linda F. and Mitchell , Andrew A. 13 – 43 . Hillsdale , N.J. : Erlbaum .
  • Beatson , Ronald . 1990 . “Reaching a United Europe Won't be a Simple Task: Visual Messages Rather than Words,” . Advertising Age , : 31 April 9
  • Bechtel , Robert B. , Achelpohl , Clark and Akers , Rogers . 1972 . “Correlates Between Observed Behavior and Questionnaire Responses on Television Viewing.” . In Television and Social Behavior: Volume 4, Television in Day to Day Life: Patterns of Use , Edited by: Rubinstein , E. A. , Comestock , G. A. and Murray , J. P. Washington , D. C. : Government Printing Office .
  • Bettman , James . 1979 . An Information Processing Theory of Consumer Choice , Reading , MA : Addison-Wesley .
  • Bower , Gordon H. 1972 . Cognition in Learning and Memory , New York : John Wiley .
  • Bruner , Jerome S. 1966 . “On Cognitive Growth I & II,” . In Studies in Cognitive Growth , Edited by: Bruner , J. S. , Olver , R. R. and Greenfield , P. M. New York : John Wiley .
  • Bryce , Wendy J. 1987 . “Modality Effects in Television Advertising” , dissertation Graduate School of Business, University of Washington .
  • Bryce , Wendy J. and Olney , Thomas J. 1988 . “Modality Effects in Television Advertising,” . In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 15 , Edited by: Houston , Mike . 174 – 177 . Provo , Utah : Association for Consumer Research .
  • Buchholz , Laura M. and Smith , Robert E. 1991 . “The Role of Consumer Involvement in Determining Cognitive Response to Broadcast Advertising,” . Journal of Advertising , 20 ( 1 ) : 4 – 17 .
  • Calvert , Sandra L. , Huston , Aletha C. , Watkins , Bruce A. and Wright , John C. 1982 . “The Relation Between Selective Attention to Television Forms and Children's Comprehension of Content,” . Child Development , 53 : 601 – 610 .
  • Chaiken , Shelley and Eagly , Alice H. 1976 . “Communication Modality as a Determinant of Message Persuasiveness and Message Comprehensibility,” . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 34 ( October ) : 605 – 614 .
  • Chaiken , Shelley and Eagly , Alice H. 1983 . “Communication Modality as a Determinant of Persuasion: The Role of Communicator Salience,” . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 45 ( August ) : 241 – 256 .
  • Childers , Terry L. and Houston , Michael J. 1984 . “Conditions for a Picture Superiority Effect on Consumer Memory,” . Journal of Consumer Research , 11 ( September ) : 643 – 654 .
  • Childers , Terry L. , Houston , Michael J. and Heckler , Susan E. 1985 . “Measurement of Individual Differences in Visual Versus Verbal Information Processing,” . Journal of Consumer Research , 12 ( September ) : 125 – 134 .
  • Dallett , Kent and Wilcox , Sandra G. 1968 . “Remembering Pictures vs. Remembering Descriptions,” . Psychonomic Science , 11 ( June ) : 139 – 140 .
  • Drew , Dan G. and Grimes , Thomas . 1987 . “Audio-Visual Redundancy and TV News Recall,” . Communication Research , 14 ( August ) : 452 – 461 .
  • Edell , Julie A. and Keller , Kevin L. 1989 . “The Information Processing of Coordinated Media Campaigns,” . Journal of Marketing Research , 26 ( May ) : 149 – 163 .
  • Edell , Julie A. , Keller , Kevin L. and Staelin , Richard . 1983 . “The Information Processing of Pictures in Print Advertisements,” . Journal of Consumer Research , 10 ( June ) : 45 – 61 .
  • Gardner , Meryl and Raj , S. P. 1983 . “Responses to Commercials in Laboratory Versus Natural Settings: A Conceptual Framework,” . In Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 10 , Edited by: Bagozzi , Richard and Tybout , Alice . 142 – 146 . Ann Arbor , MI : Association for Consumer Research .
  • Gibson , Lawrence D. 1983 . “Not Recall” . Journal of Advertising Research , 23 ( Feb/Mar ) : 39 – 46 .
  • Goldberg , Marvin and Gorn , Gerald . 1987 . “Happy and Sad TV Programs: How They Affect Reactions to Commercials,” . Journal of Consumer Research , 14 ( December ) : 387 – 403 .
  • Grass , Robert C. and Wallace , W. H. 1974 . “Advertising Communication: Print vs. TV” . Journal of Advertising Research , 14 ( October ) : 19 – 23 .
  • Greene , William F. 1988 . “Maybe the Valley of the Shadow Isn't So Bad After All,” . Journal of Advertising Research , 28 ( October/November ) : 11 – 15 .
  • Gulland , Gary and Shiffrin , Richard . 1984 . “A Retrieval Model for Both Recognition and Recall,” . Psychological Review , 91 ( January ) : 1 – 67 .
  • Gunter , B. 1979 . “Recall of Television News Items: Effects of Presentation Mode, Picture Content, and Serial Position,” . Journal of Educational Television and Other Media , 5 : 57 – 61 .
  • Haber , Ralph N. 1970 . “How We Remember What We See,” . Scientific American , 222 ( May ) : 104 – 12 .
  • Hall , John F. 1983 . “Recall Versus Recognition: A Methodological Note,” . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning and Memory and Cognition , 9 ( April ) : 346 – 349 .
  • Harwood , K. A. 1951 . “An Experimental Comparison of Listening Comprehensibility with Reading Comprehensiblity,” . Speech Monographs , 18 : 123 – 124 .
  • Hayes , Donald S. and Birnbaum , Dana W. 1980 . “Preschoolers' Retention of Televised Events: Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Words?,” . Developmental Psychology , 16 ( September ) : 410 – 416 .
  • Hayes , Donald S. , Birnbaum , Dana W. and Kelly , Suzanne B. 1984 . “Young Children's Processing of Television: Modality Differences in the Retention of Temporal Relations,” . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 38 ( December ) : 505 – 514 .
  • Hoffner , Cynthia , Cantor , Joanne and Thorson , Esther . 1988 . “Children's Understanding of a Televised Narrative,” . Communication Research , 15 ( June ) : 227 – 245 .
  • Houston , Michael J. , Childers , Terry L. and Heckler , Susan E. 1987 . “Picture-Word Consistency and the Elaborative Processing of Advertisements,” . Journal of Marketing Research , 24 ( Nov ) : 359 – 369 .
  • Intraub , Helen . 1980 . “Presentation Rate and the Representation of Briefly Glimpsed Pictures in Memory,” . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory , 6 ( January ) : 1 – 12 .
  • Jackson , Sally and Jacobs , Scott . 1983 . “Generalizing about Messages: Suggestions for Design and Analysis of Experiments,” . Human Communication Research , 9 ( Winter ) : 169 – 181 .
  • Jackson , Sally , Jacobs , Scott , O'Keefe , Daniel , Jacobs , Scott and Brashers , Dale E. 1989 . “Messages as Replications: Toward a Message-Centered Design Strategy,” . Communications Monographs , 56 ( December ) : 364 – 384 .
  • Jacoby , Jacob , Hoyer , Wayne D. and Zimmer , Mary R. 1983 . “To Read, View, or Listen? A Cross-Media Comparison of Comprehension,” . Current Issues and Research in Advertising: Original Research and Theoretical Contributions , : 201 – 218 .
  • Kaatz , Ronald B. 1987 . “The ‘Zapping’ Problem And Suggestions for Solutions,” . Journal of Media Planning , : 29 – 34 . (Spring)
  • Kaatz , Ronald B. 1986 . “Advertisers Need Quick Fix for Zipping, Zapping,” . Marketing News , : 12 May 9
  • Kerst , M. 1976 . “Interactive Visual Imagery and Memory Search for Words and Pictures,” . Memory and Cognition , 4 ( 5 ) : 573 – 580 .
  • Kieras , David . 1978 . “Beyond Pictures and Words: Alternative Information- Processing Models of Imagery Effects in Verbal Memory,” . Psychological Bulletin , 85 ( May ) : 532 – 554 .
  • Kneale , Dennis . 1988 . “‘Zapping’ of TV Ads Appears Pervasive,” . Wall St. Journal , : 29 April 4
  • Kosslyn , Stephen M. 1981 . “The Medium and the Message in Mental Imagery: A Theory,” . Psychological Review , 88 ( January ) : 46 – 66 .
  • Krugman , Herbert E. 1965 . “The Impact of TV Advertising: Learning Without Involvement,” . Public Opinion Quarterly , 29 ( Fall ) : 349 – 356 .
  • Krugman , Herbert E. 1985 . “Measuring Memory – An Industry Dilemma,” . Journal of Advertising Research , 25 ( August/September ) : 49 – 51 .
  • LaTour , Stephen A. and Miniard , Paul W. 1983 . “The Misuse of Repeated Measures Analysis in Marketing Research,” . Journal of Marketing Research , 20 ( February ) : 45 – 57 .
  • Lehman , Elyse B. 1982 . “Memory for Modality:: Evidence for an Automatic Process,” . Memory and Cognition , 10 ( November ) : 554 – 564 .
  • Lehman , Elyse B. and Mellinger , Jeanne C. 1984 . “Effects of Aging on Memory for Presentation Modality,” . Developmental Psychology , 20 ( November ) : 1210 – 1217 .
  • Leigh , James H. 1991 . “Information Processing Differences Among Broadcast Media: Review and Suggestions for Research.” . Journal of Advertising , 20 ( June ) : 71 – 75 .
  • Liu , Scott S. and Stout , Patricia A. 1987 . “Effects of Message Modality and Appeal on Advertising Acceptance,” . Psychology and Marketing , 4 ( Fall ) : 167 – 87 .
  • Lutz , Kathy A. and Lutz , Richard J. 1977 . “Effects of Interactive Imagery on Learning: Applications to Advertising,” . Journal of Applied Psychology , 62 ( August ) : 493 – 98 .
  • Lutz , Richard . 1985 . “Affective and Cognitive Antecedents of Attitude toward the Ad: A Conceptual Framework.” . In Psychological Processes and Advertising Effects , Edited by: Alwitt , Linda F. and Mitchel , Andrew A. 45 – 65 . Hillsdale , NJ : Erlbaum .
  • MacInnis , Deborah and Jaworski , Bernard . 1989 . “Information Processing from Advertisements: Toward an Integrative View,” . Journal of Marketing , 53 ( October ) : 1 – 23 .
  • Mandler , Jean and Johnson , Nancy S. 1979 . “Some of the Thousand Words a Picture is Worth,” . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory , 2 ( September ) : 529 – 540 .
  • Marks , David F. 1973 . “Visual Imagery Differences in the Recall of Pictures,” . British Journal of Psychology , 64 ( February ) : 17 – 24 .
  • Miller , George A. 1956 . “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on our Capacity to Process Information,” . Psychological Review , 63 ( March ) : 81 – 97 .
  • Mitchell , Andrew A. and Olson , Jerry C. 1981 . “Are Product Attribute Beliefs the Only Mediator of Advertising Effects on Brand Attitude?,” . Journal of Marketing Research , 18 ( August ) : 318 – 332 .
  • Paivio , Allan . 1971 . Imagery and Verbal Processes , New York : Holt, Rinehart & Winston .
  • Paivio , Allan . 1978 . “A Dual Coding Approach to Perception and Cognition,” . In Modes of Perceiving and Processing Infromation , Edited by: Pick , H. I. and Saltzman , E. 39 – 51 . Hillsdale , N.J. : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
  • Paivio , Allan . 1986 . Mental Representations: A Dual Coding Approach , N.Y : Oxford University Press .
  • Paivio , Allan and Csapo , K. 1969 . “Concrete Image and Verbal Memory Codes,” . Journal of Experimental Psychology , 80 ( May ) : 279 – 285 .
  • Paivio , Allan Csapo K. and te Linde , John . 1982 . “Imagery, Memory and the Brain,” . Canadian Journal of Psychology , 36 ( June ) : 243 – 272 .
  • Pezdek , Kathy and Stevens , Ellen . 1984 . “Children's Memory for Auditory and Visual Information on Television,” . Developmental Psychology , 20 ( March ) : 212 – 218 .
  • Potter , Mary C. and Levy , Ellen I. 1969 . “Recognition Memory for a Rapid Sequence of Pictures,” . Journal of Experimental Psychology , 81 ( 1 ) : 523 – 529 .
  • Pylyshyn , Zenon W. 1981 . “The Imagery Debate: Analogue Media Versus Tacit Knowledge,” . Psychological Review , 88 ( January ) : 16 – 45 .
  • Reiss , Craig . 1986 . “Fast-Forward Ads Deliver,” . Advertising Age , 27 ( October ) : 3 97
  • Richardson , Alan . 1977 . “Verbalizer, Visualizer: A Cognitive Style Dimension,” . Journal of Mental Imagery , 4 : 51 – 58 .
  • Richardson , Alan . 1980 . Mental Imagery and Human Memory , London : MacMillan .
  • Rubin , Alan M. 1984 . “Ritualized and Instrumental Television Viewing,” . Journal of Communication , : 67 – 77 . (Summer)
  • Sheehan , Peter W. 1967 . “A Shortened Form of Betts' Questionnaire Upon Mental Imagery,” . Journal of Clinical Psychology , 3 ( July ) : 386 – 389 .
  • Shepard , Roger N. 1967 . “Recognition Memory for Words, Sentences and Pictures,” . Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior , 6 ( February ) : 156 – 163 .
  • Singh , Surendra N. and Rothschild , Michael L. 1983 . “Recognition as a Measure of Learning from Television Commercials,” . Journal of Marketing Research , 20 ( August ) : 235 – 248 .
  • Singh , Surendra N. , Rothschild , Michael L. and Churchill , Gilbert A. 1988 . “Recognition Versus Recall as Measures of Television Commercial Forgetting,” . Journal of Marketing Research , 25 ( February ) : 72 – 80 .
  • Smith , Robert E. and Buchholz , Laura M. 1991 . “Multipel Resource Theory and Consumer Processing of Broadcast Advertisements: An Involvement Perspective,” . Journal of Advertising , 20 ( September ) : 1 – 7 .
  • Standing , Lionel . 1973 . “Learning 10,000 Pictures,” . Quarterly Journal of Psychology , 25 : 207 – 222 .
  • Stout , Patricia A. and Burda , Benedicta L. 1989 . “Zipped Commercials: Are They Effective . Journal of Advertising , 18 ( 4 ) : 23 – 32 .
  • Strong , Edward K. 1912 . “The Effect of Length of Series Upon Recognition Memory,” . Psychological Review , 19 : 447 – 462 .
  • te Linde , John . 1982 . “Picture-Word Differences in Decision Latency: A Test of Common-Coding Assumptions,” . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition , 8 ( November ) : 584 – 598 .
  • Tulving , Endel . 1972 . “Episodic and Semantic Memory,” . In Organization of Memory , Edited by: Tulving , Endel and Donaldson , W. New York : Academic Press .
  • Tulving , Endel and Thompson , Donald M. 1973 . “Encoding Specificity and Retrieval Process in Episodic Memory,” . Psychological Review , 80 ( September ) : 352 – 373 .
  • Unnava , Rao H. and Burnkrant , Robert E. 1991 . “An Imagery-Processing View of the Role of Pictures in Print Advertisements,” . Journal of Marketing Research , 28 ( May ) : 226 – 231 .
  • Ward , Scott and Wackman , Daniel B. 1973 . “Children's Information Processing of Television Advertising,” . In New Models for Mass Communication Research , Edited by: Clark , P. 119 – 146 . Beverly Hills , CA : Sage .
  • Warshaw , Paul R. 1978 . “Application of Selective Attention Theory to TV Advertising Displays,” . Journal of Applied Psychology , 63 ( June ) : 366 – 372 .
  • Watkins , Bruce A. , Calvert , Sandra L. , Huston-Stein , Aletha and Wright , John C. 1980 . “Children's Recall of Television Material: Effects of Presentation Mode and Adult Labeling,” . Developmental Psychology , 16 ( November ) : 672 – 674 .
  • Webb , Peter and Ray , Michael L. 1979 . “Effects of TV Clutter,” . Journal of Advertising Research , 19 ( June ) : 7 – 12 .
  • White , Sheehan K.P. W. and Ashton , R. 1977 . “Imagery Assessment: A Survey of Self-Report Measures,” . Journal of Mental Imagery , 1 ( Spring ) : 145 – 170 .
  • Wilson , Edwards C. 1974 . “The Effect of Medium on Loss of Information,” . Journalism Quarterly , 51 ( Spring ) : 111 – 115 .
  • Yalch , Richard F. 1991 . “Memory in a Jingle Jungle: Music as a Mnemonic Device in Communicating Advertising Slogans,” . Journal of Applied Psychology , 76 ( April ) : 268 – 275 .
  • Zielske , Hubert A. 1982 . “Does Day-After-Recall Penalize ‘Feeling’ Ads?,” . Journal of Advertising Research , 22 ( February-March ) : 19 – 22 .
  • Zinkhan , George M. , Gelb , Betsy D. and Martin , Claude R. 1983 . “The Cloze Procedure,” . Journal of Advertising Research , 23 ( June-July ) : 15 – 20 .
  • Zinkhan , George M. , Gelb , Betsy D. , Martin , Claude R. , Locander , William B. and Leigh , James H. 1986 . “Dimensional Relationship of Aided Recall and Recognition,” . Journal of Advertising , 15 ( March ) : 38 – 46 .
  • Zuckerman , P. , Ziegler , M. and Stevenson , H. W. 1978 . “Children's Viewing of Television and Recognition Memory of Commercials,” . Child Development , 49 : 96 – 104 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.