Preventing Special Education Assignment for Students with Learning or Behavioral Difficulties: A Review of Programs

References

• Apling, R. N. (2001). Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA): Identification and misidentification of children with disabilities. Retrieved from https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc819478/.
   Google Scholar
• ∗Baker, S., Gersten, R., & Keating, T. (2000). When less may be more: A 2-year longitudinal evaluation of a volunteer tutoring program requiring minimal training. Reading Research Quarterly, 35(4), 494–519. doi:10.1598/RRQ.35.4.3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ballis, B., & Heath, K. (2021a). The long-run impacts of special education. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 13(4), 72–111. doi:10.1257/pol.20190603
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ballis, B., & Heath, K. (2021b). Direct and spillover effects of limiting minority student access to special education. (EdWorkingPaper, 21-364). Retrieved from Annenberg Institute at Brown University. doi:10.26300/m2m5-0t83
   Google Scholar
• Barrat, V. X., Berliner, B., Voight, A., Tran, L., Huang, C., Yu, A., & Chen-Gaddini, M. (2014). School mobility, dropout, and graduation rates across student disability categories in Utah. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory West.
   Google Scholar
• Bergan, J. R., & Kratochwill, T. R. (1990). Behavioral consultation and therapy. New York, NY: Plenum.
   Google Scholar
• ∗Bierman, K. L., Coie, C., Dodge, K., Greenberg, M., Lochman, J., McMohan, R., & Pinderhughes, E. (2013). School outcomes of aggressive-disruptive children: Prediction from kindergarten risk factors and impact of the Fast Track Prevention Program. Aggressive Behavior, 39(2), 114–130. doi:10.1002/ab.21467
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boonk, L., Gijselaers, H. J. M., Ritzen, H., & Brand‐Gruwel, S. (2018). A review of the relationship between parental involvement indicators and academic achievement. Educational Research Review, 24, 10–30. doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2018.02.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ∗Borman, G. D., & Hewes, G. M. (2002). The long-term effects and cost-effectiveness of success for all. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 24(4), 243–266. doi:10.3102/01623737024004243
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ∗Bradshaw, C. P., Pas, E. T., Goldweber, A., Rosenberg, M. S., & Leaf, P. J. (2012). Integrating school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports with tier 2 coaching to student support teams: The PBISplus model. Advances in School Mental Health Promotion, 5(3), 177–193. doi:10.1080/1754730X.2012.707429
   Google Scholar
• Burns, M. K., Appleton, J. J., & Stehouwer, J. D. (2005). Meta-analytic review of responsiveness-to-intervention research: Examining field-based and research-implemented models. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 23(4), 381–394. doi:10.1177/073428290502300406
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burns, M. K., & Symington, T. (2002). A meta-analysis of prereferral intervention teams: Student and systemic outcomes. Journal of School Psychology, 40(5), 437–447. doi:10.1016/S0022-4405(02)00106-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bursuck, B., & Blanks, B. (2010). Evidence-based early reading practices within a response to intervention system. Psychology in the Schools, 47(5), 421–431. doi:10.1002/pits.20480
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Capin, P., Walker, M. A., Vaughn, S., & Wanzek, J. (2018). Examining how treatment fidelity is supported, measured, and reported in K–3 reading intervention research. Educational Psychology Review, 30(3), 885–919. doi:10.1007/s10648-017-9429-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castro, M., Expósito‐Casas, E., López‐Martín, E., Lizasoain, L., Navarro‐Asencio, E., & Gaviria, J. L. (2015). Parental involvement on student academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 14, 33–46. doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2015.01.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheung, A. C., & Slavin, R. E. (2016). How methodological features affect effect sizes in education. Educational Researcher, 45(5), 283–292. doi:10.3102/0013189X16656615
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark, M. D. (1997). Teacher response to learning disability: A test of attributional principles. Journal of learning disabilities, 30(1), 69–79. doi:10.1177/002221949703000106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clay, M. M. (2016). Literacy lessons designed for individuals. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational Books Inc.
   Google Scholar
• ∗Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group (CPPRG). (1999). Initial impact of the Fast Track prevention trial for conduct problems: I. The high-risk sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67(5), 631–647. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.67.5.631
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ∗Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group (CPPRG). (2002). Evaluation of the first 3 years of the Fast Track prevention trial with children at high risk for adolescent conduct problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30(1), 19–35. doi:10.1023/A:1014274914287
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connor, C. M., Morrison, F. J., Fishman, B. J., Schatschneider, C., & Underwood, P. (2007). The early years: Algorithm-guided individualized reading instruction. Science (New York, N.Y.), 315(5811), 464–465. doi:10.1126/science.1134513
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cortiella, C., & Horowitz, S. H. (2014). The state of learning disabilities: Facts, trends and emerging issues. Washington, DC: National Center for Learning Disabilities.
   Google Scholar
• Cottrell, J. M., & Barrett, C. A. (2016). Defining the undefinable: Operationalization of methods to identify specific learning disabilities among practicing school psychologists. Psychology in the Schools, 53(2), 143–157. doi:10.1002/pits.21892
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D’Alessio, S., & Watkins, A. (2009). International comparisons of inclusive policy and practice: Are we talking about the same thing? Research in Comparative and International Education, 4(3), 233–249. doi:10.2304/rcie.2009.4.3.233
   Google Scholar
• De Boer, H., Timmermans, A. C., & Van der Werf, M. P. C. (2018). The effects of teacher expectation interventions on teachers’ expectations and student achievement: Narrative review and meta-analysis. Educational Research and Evaluation, 24(3-5), 180–200. doi:10.1080/13803611.2018.1550834
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dietrichson, J., Bøg, M., Filges, T., & Klint Jørgensen, A. M. (2017). Academic interventions for elementary and middle school students with low socioeconomic status: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 87(2), 243–282. doi:10.3102/0034654316687036
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durlak, J. A., & DuPre, E. (2008). Implementation matters: A review of research on the influence of implementation on program outcomes and the factors affecting implementation. American Journal of community psychology, 41(3-4), 327–350. doi:10.1007/s10464-008-9165-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Nokali, N. E., Bachman, H. J., & Votruba-Drzal, E. (2010). Parent involvement and children’s academic and social development in elementary school. Child Development, 81(3), 988–1005. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01447.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferguson, D. L. (2008). International trends in inclusive education: The continuing challenge to teach each one and everyone. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 23(2), 109–120. doi:10.1080/08856250801946236
   Google Scholar
• Fletcher, J. M., Coulter, W. A., Reschly, D. J., & Vaughn, S. (2004). Alternative approaches to the definition and identification of learning disabilities: Some questions and answers. Annals of dyslexia, 54(2), 304–331. doi:10.1007/s11881-004-0015-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ∗Flynn, K. S. (2012). Stability of special education eligibility from kindergarten to third grade: Are there variables from fall of kindergarten that predict later classification status? (Doctoral dissertation). Florida State University, ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.
   Google Scholar
• Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. S. (2006). Introduction to response to intervention: What, why, and how valid is it? Reading Research Quarterly, 41(1), 93–99. doi:10.1598/RRQ.41.1.4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., & Hollenbeck, K. N. (2007). Extending responsiveness to intervention to mathematics at first and third grades. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 22(1), 13–24. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2007.00227.x
   Google Scholar
• Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., & Malone, A. S. (2016). Multilevel response-to-intervention prevention systems: Mathematics intervention at Tier 2. In S. R. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, & A. M. VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Handbook of response to intervention: The science and practice of multi-tiered systems of support (2nd ed., pp. 309–328). New York, NY: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Fuchs, L. S., & Vaughn, S. (2012). Responsiveness-to-intervention: A decade later. Journal of learning disabilities, 45(3), 195–203. doi:10.1177/0022219412442150
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gersten, R., Clarke, B., & Mazzocco, M. M. (2007). Historical and contemporary perspectives on mathematical learning disabilities. In M. M. M. Mazzocco & D. B. Berch (Eds.), Why is math so hard for some children? The nature and origins of mathematical learning difficulties and disabilities. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Pub. Co.
   Google Scholar
• Gersten, R., Haymond, K., Newman-Gonchar, R., Dimino, J., & Jayanthi, M. (2020). Meta-analysis of the impact of reading interventions for students in the primary grades. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 13(2), 401–427. doi:10.1080/19345747.2019.1689591
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagans, K. S., & Good, R. H. (2013). Decreasing reading differences in children from disadvantaged backgrounds: The effects of an early literacy intervention. Contemporary School Psychology, 17(1), 103–117. doi:10.1007/BF03340992
   Google Scholar
• Hawken, L. S., & Horner, R. H. (2003). Implementing a targeted group intervention within a schoolwide system of behavior support. Journal of Behavioral Education, 12(3), 225–240. doi:10.1023/A:1025512411930
   Google Scholar
• Hettleman, K. R. (2019). Mislabeled as disabled: The educational abuse of struggling learners and how we can fight it. New York, NY: Radius Book Group.
   Google Scholar
• Hibel, J., Farkas, G., & Morgan, P. L. (2010). Who is placed into special education? Sociology of education, 83(4), 312–332. doi:10.1177/0038040710383518
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoover, J. (2010). Special education eligibility decision making in response to intervention models. Theory Into Practice, 49(4), 289–296. doi:10.1080/00405841.2010.510752
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hosp, J. L., & Reschly, D. J. (2003). Referral rates for intervention or assessment: A meta-analysis of racial differences. The Journal of Special Education, 37(2), 67–80. doi:10.1177/00224669030370020201
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes, C. A., & Dexter, D. D. (2011). Response to Intervention: A research-based summary. Theory Into Practice, 50(1), 4–11. doi:10.1080/00405841.2011.534909
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacob, R. T., Doolittle, F., Kemple, J., & Somers, M.-A. (2019). A framework for learning from null results. Educational Researcher, 48(9), 580–589. doi:10.3102/0013189X19891955
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Institute of Education Sciences, National Center of Education Statistics (IES/NCES). (2020). Digest of education statistics table 204.30. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d20/tables/dt20_204.30.asp.
   Google Scholar
• Jepma, I. (2003). De schoolloopbaan van risicoleerlingen in het primair onderwijs. [The school careers of pupils at risk in primary education]. (Doctoral dissertation). Universiteit van Amsterdam, UvA Digital Academic Repository. https://hdl.handle.net/11245/1.270758.
   Google Scholar
• Kirby, M. (2017). Implicit assumptions in special education policy: Promoting full inclusion for students with learning disabilities. Child & Youth Care Forum, 46(2), 175–191. doi:10.1007/s10566-016-9382-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ∗Kratochwill, T. R., McDonald, L., Levin, J. R., Scalia, P. A., & Coover, G. (2009). Families and schools together: An experimental study of multi-family support groups for children at risk. Journal of school psychology, 47(4), 245–265. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2009.03.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kusché, C. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (1994). The PATHS curriculum. Seattle, WA: Developmental Research and Programs.
   Google Scholar
• Lembke, E. S., Hampton, D., & Beyers, S. J. (2012). Response to intervention in mathematics: Critical elements. Psychology in the Schools, 49(3), 257–272. doi:10.1002/pits.21596
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Lockwood, A. B., Farmer, R. L., Winans, S., & Sealander, K. (2021). Specific learning disability identification practices in the USA: A survey of special education administrators. Contemporary School Psychology. doi:10.1007/s40688-021-00375-4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maki, K. E., & Adams, S. R. (2019). A current landscape of specific learning disability identification: Training, practices, and implications. Psychology in the Schools, 56(1), 18–31. doi:10.1002/pits.22179
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maki, K. E., & Adams, S. R. (2020). Specific learning disabilities identification: Do the identification methods and data matter? Learning Disability Quarterly, 43(2), 63–74. doi:10.1177/0731948719826296
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maki, K. E., Floyd, R. G., & Roberson, T. (2015). State learning disability eligibility criteria: A comprehensive review. School Psychology Quarterly, 30(4), 457–469. doi:10.1037/spq0000109
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manset-Williamson, G., St. John, E., Hu, S., & Gordon, D. (2002). Early literacy practices as predictors of reading related outcomes: Test scores, test passing rates, retention, and special education referral. Exceptionality, 10(1), 11–28. doi:10.1207/S15327035EX1001_2
   Google Scholar
• Martin, R. P., Foels, P., Clanton, G., & Moon, K. (2004). Season of birth is related to child retention rates, achievement, and rate of diagnosis of specific LD. Journal of learning disabilities, 37(4), 307–317. doi:10.1177/00222194040370040301
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ∗McConney, A., Ayres, R., Cuthbertson, L., & Todd-Goodson, D. (2001). Third party evaluation of the effectiveness of the Structure of Intellect model schools pilot program. Year 4 evaluation report. Monmouth, OR: Western Oregon University.
   Google Scholar
• ∗McDougal, J. L., Clonan, S. M., & Martens, B. K. (2000). Using organizational change procedures to promote the acceptability of prereferral intervention services: The school-based intervention team project. School Psychology Quarterly, 15(2), 149–171. doi:10.1037/h0088783
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan, P. L., Frisco, M. L., Farkas, G., & Hibel, J. (2010). A propensity score matching analysis of the effects of special education services. The Journal of special education, 43(4), 236–254. doi:10.1177/0022466908323007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neitzel, A. J., Lake, C., Pellegrini, M., & Slavin, R. E. (2022). A synthesis of quantitative research on programs for struggling readers in elementary schools. Reading Research Quarterly, 57(1), 149–179. doi:10.1002/rrq.379
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NESSE. (2012). Education and disability/special needs: Policies and practices in education, training and employment for students with disabilities and special educational needs in the EU. Brussels: European Commission.
   Google Scholar
• Nickow, A., Oreopoulos, P., & Quan, V. (2020). The impressive effects of tutoring on preK-12 learning: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the experimental evidence. (No. w27476). p. w27476. National Bureau of Economic Research. doi:10.3386/w27476
   Google Scholar
• ∗O’Connor, E. A., & Simic, O. (2002). The effect of Reading Recovery on special education referrals and placements. Psychology in the Schools, 39(6), 635–646. doi:10.1002/pits.10061
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oregon Children’s Foundation. (1992). SMART volunteer handbook. Portland, OR: Oregon Children’s Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Peetsma, T. T. D., Vergeer, M. M., Roeleveld, J., & Karsten, S. (2001). Inclusion in education: Comparing pupils’ development in special and regular education. Educational Review, 53(2), 125–135. doi:10.1080/00131910125044
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pigott, T. D., & Polanin, J. R. (2020). Methodological guidance paper: High-quality meta-analysis in a systematic review. Review of Educational Research, 90(1), 24–46. doi:10.3102/0034654319877153
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pit-ten Cate, I. M., & Glock, S. (2018). Teacher expectations concerning students with immigrant backgrounds or special educational needs. Educational Research and Evaluation, 24(3-5), 277–294. doi:10.1080/13803611.2018.1550839
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polanin, J. R., Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Hennessy, E. A. (2016). Estimating the difference between published and unpublished effect sizes: A meta-review. Review of Educational Research, 86(1), 207–236. doi:10.3102/0034654315582067
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powell, J. J. W. (2006). Special education and the risk of becoming less educated. European Societies, 8(4), 577–599. doi:10.1080/14616690601002673
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ∗Quint, J., Zhu, P., Balu, R., Rappaport, S., & DeLaurentis, M. (2015). Scaling up the Success for All model of school reform: Final report from the investing in innovation (i3) evaluation. New York, NY: MDRC.
   Google Scholar
• Ramberg, J., & Watkins, A. (2020). Exploring inclusive education across Europe: Some insights from the European Agency Statistics on Inclusive Education. FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education, 6(1), 85–101. doi:10.32865/fire202061172
   Google Scholar
• Reschly, A. L. (2010). Reading and school completion: Critical connections and Matthew effects. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 26(1), 67–90. doi:10.1080/10573560903397023
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reschly, D. J. (2014). Response to Intervention and the identification of specific learning disabilities. Topics in Language Disorders, 34(1), 39–58. doi:10.1097/TLD.0000000000000003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schrag, J. A., & Henderson, K. (1996). School-based intervention assistance teams and their impact on special education. Alexandria, VA: National Association of State Directors of Special Education.
   Google Scholar
• Shifrer, D. (2013). Stigma of a Label: educational expectations for high school students labeled with learning disabilities. Journal of health and social behavior, 54(4), 462–480. doi:10.1177/0022146513503346
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slavin, R. E. (1986). Best-evidence synthesis: An alternative to meta-analytic and traditional reviews. Educational Researcher, 15(9), 5–11. doi:10.3102/0013189X015009005
   Google Scholar
• Slavin, R. E. (2018). Learners with exceptionalities. In R. E. Slavin (Ed.), Educational psychology: Theory and practice (12th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Slavin, R. E., Madden, N. A., Chambers, B., & Haxby, B. (2009). 2 million children: Success for All (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
   Google Scholar
• Slavin, R. E., Neitzel, A., Pellegrini, M., & Lake, C. (2019). Response to proven intervention (RTPI): Enabling struggling learners. Best Evidence Encyclopedia. https://bestevidence.org/category/special-and-remedial-education/.
   Google Scholar
• Stentiford, L., Koutsouris, G., & Norwich, B. (2018). A systematic literature review of the organisational arrangements of primary school-based reading interventions for struggling readers. Journal of Research in Reading, 41(1), S197–S225. doi:10.1111/1467-9817.12264
   Google Scholar
• Sugai, G., & Horner, R. (2006). A promising approach for expanding and sustaining school-wide positive behavior support. School Psychology Review, 35(2), 245–259. doi:10.1080/02796015.2006.12087989
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sullivan, A. L., & Bal, A. (2013). Disproportionality in special education: Effects of individual and school variables on disability risk. Exceptional Children, 79(4), 475–494. doi:10.1177/001440291307900406
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Truscott, S. D., Cohen, C. E., Sam, D. P., Sanborn, K. J., & Frank, A. J. (2005). The current state(s) of prereferral intervention teams: A report from two national surveys. Remedial and Special Education, 26(3), 130–140. doi:10.1177/07419325050260030101
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaughn, S., & Linan-Thompson, S. (2003). What is special about special education for studentswith learning disabilities? The Journal of Special Education, 37(3), 140–147. doi:10.1177/00224669030370030301
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallingford, E. L., & Thompson Prout, H. (2000). The relationship of season of birth and special education referral. Psychology in the Schools, 37(4), 379–387. doi:10.1002/1520-6807(200007)37:4 < 389::aid-pits9 > 3.0.co;2-k
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wanzek, J., & Vaughn, S. (2007). Research-based implications from extensive early reading interventions. School Psychology Review, 36(4), 541–561. doi:10.1080/02796015.2007.12087917
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wanzek, J., Vaughn, S., Scammacca, N., Gatlin, B., Walker, M. A., & Capin, P. (2016). Meta-analyses of the effects of tier 2 type reading interventions in grades K-3. Educational Psychology Review, 28(3), 551–576. doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9321-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• What Works Clearinghouse. (2020). What works clearinghouse standards handbook, Version 4.1. https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/handbooks.
   Google Scholar
• Valås, H. (2001). Learned helplessness and psychological adjustment II: Effects of learning disabilities and low achievement. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 45(2), 101–114. doi:10.1080/00313830020042689
   Google Scholar
• Young, A. R., Beitchman, J. H., Johnson, C., Douglas, L., Atkinson, L., Escobar, M., & Wilson, B. (2002). Young adult academic outcomes in a longitudinal sample of early identified language impaired and control children. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines, 43(5), 635–645. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00052
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar