References
- De Moissac D, Bowen S. Impact of language barriers on quality of care and patient safety for official language minority francophones in Canada. J Patient Exp. 2019 Mar;6(1):24–11. doi: 10.1177/2374373518769008
- Ismaiel S, AlGhafari D, Ibrahim H. Promoting physician-patient language concordance in undergraduate medical education: a peer assisted learning approach. BMC Med Educ. 2023 Jan 3;23(1):1. doi: 10.1186/s12909-022-03986-4
- Kenison TC, Madu A, Krupat E, et al. Through the veil of language: exploring the hidden curriculum for the care of patients with limited English proficiency. Acad Med. 2017 Jan;92(1):92–100.
- Rodziewicz TL, Houseman B, Hipskind JE. Medical error reduction and prevention. StatPearls: StatPearls Publishing; 2022.
- Garcia ME, Bindman AB, Coffman J. Language-concordant primary care physicians for a diverse population: the view from California. Health Equity. 2019;3(1):343–349. doi: 10.1089/heq.2019.0035
- Diamond LC, Gregorich SE, Karliner L, et al. Development of a tool to assess medical oral language proficiency. Acad Med. 2023 Apr 1;98(4):480–490. doi: 10.1097/acm.0000000000004942
- Fellmann JD, Bjelland MD, Getis A, et al. Language and religion: mosaics of culture. In: Human Geography: Landscapes Of Human Activities. 11th ed. Vol. 123, Ryan Blankenship 2010. chap 5.
- Tello C, Goode CA. Factors and barriers that influence the matriculation of underrepresented students in medicine. Front Psychol 2023;14:1141045. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1141045
- Pew Research Center. Key Findings About U.S. Immigrants. 2023 May 12. [cited 2023 May 12]. Available from: https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2020/08/20/key-findings-about-u-s-immigrants/
- Health resources and services administration (HRSA). HRSA Health Workforce Glossary. 2023 May 12. [cited 2023 May 12]. Available from: https://bhw.hrsa.gov/glossary#u
- Balderas-Medina Anaya Y, Hsu P, Martínez LE, et al. Latina women in the U.S Physician workforce: opportunities in the pursuit of health equity. Acad Med. 2022 Mar 1;97(3):398–405. doi: 10.1097/acm.0000000000004412
- Himmelstein J, Wright WS, Wiederman MW. U.S. medical school curricula on working with medical interpreters and/or patients with limited English proficiency. Adv Med Educ Pract. 2018;9:729–733. doi: 10.2147/amep.S176028
- Schmuter G. Learning a second Language: diversifying medical school from within. Acad Med. 2020 Feb;95(2):172. doi: 10.1097/acm.0000000000003070
- Núñez AM, Rios-Aguilar C, Kanno Y, Flores, SM. English Learners and Their Transition to Postsecondary Education. In: Paulsen M, editor Higher education: handbook of theory and research. Vol. 31. Cham: Springer; 2016. p. 41–90. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-26829-3_2
- NCCPA. Statistical profile of certified PAs - Annual Report. 2023 [cited 2023 Apr 10]. Available from: https://www.nccpa.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/2021StatProfileofCertifiedPAs-A-3.2.pdf
- Yuen CX, Honda TJ. Predicting physician assistant program matriculation among diverse applicants: the influences of underrepresented minority status, age, and gender. Acad Med. 2019 Aug;94(8):1237–1243. doi: 10.1097/acm.0000000000002717
- World Population Review. Most Racially Diverse Countries 2023 [cited 2023 June 1]. Available from: https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/most-racially-diverse-countries
- Snyder J, Brown D, Quincy B. Course Prerequisites: Here, There, and Everywhere. Time to Standardize? J Physician Assist Educ. 2022 Sep 1;33(3):164–170.
- VanderMeulen S, Snyder JA, Kohlhepp W, et al. Pipeline to the physician assistant profession: a look to the future. J Physician Assist Educ. 2022 Mar 1;33(1):e1–e10. doi: 10.1097/jpa.0000000000000414
- Showstark M, Bessette M, Barry CL, et al. PA applicant U.S. citizenship status and likelihood of program matriculation. BMC Med Educ. 2022 Dec 20;22(1):887. doi: 10.1186/s12909-022-03947-x
- Honda T, Henry TD, Mandel ED, et al. Maximizing black applicant matriculation in U.S. PA programs: associations between the number of submitted applications and likelihood of matriculation. BMC Med Educ. 2021 Feb 23;21(1):127. doi: 10.1186/s12909-021-02563-5
- Honda T, Patel-Junankar D, Baginski R, et al. Admissions variables: predictors of physician assistant student success. J Physician Assist Educ. 2018 Sep;29(3):167–172. doi: 10.1097/jpa.0000000000000212
- Physician Assistant Education Association (PAEA). Program report 35: by the numbers-data from the 2019 program survey. 2020. Available from: https://paeaonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/program-report35-20201014.pdf
- Textor J, van der Zander B, Gilthorpe MS, et al. Robust causal inference using directed acyclic graphs: the R package ‘dagitty’. Int J Epidemiol. 2016 Dec 1;45(6):1887–1894. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyw341
- TOEFL. TOEFL iBT® test: understanding your TOEFL iBT scores. 2023 [cited 2023 Mar 14]. Available from: https://www.ets.org/toefl/test-takers/ibt/scores/understand-scores.html#:~:text=Each%20section%20has%20a%20score,total%20score%20of%200%E2%80%93120.
- Passel JS, Cohn DV. u.s. Population Projections: 2005-2050. Pew Research Center. 2023 [cited 2023 Mar 13]. Available from: https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/2008/02/11/us-population-projections-2005-2050/
- Groene OR, Ehrhardt M, Bergelt C. Attitude and communication skills of German medical students. BMC Res Notes. 2022 Jan 10;15(1):11. doi: 10.1186/s13104-021-05901-4
- Pearson S Diversifying the healthcare workforce is key to addressing health inequities. the harvard medical school center for primary care. 2023 [cited 2023 Dec30]. Available from: https://info.primarycare.hms.harvard.edu/perspectives/articles/diversifying-healthcare-workforce
- SIDLEY. U.S. Supreme Court Ends Affirmative Action in higher education: an overview and practical next steps for employers. 2023 [cited 2023 Dec 30]. Available from: https://www.sidley.com/en/insights/newsupdates/2023/08/us-supreme-court-ends-affirmative-action-in-higher-education–an-overview-and-practical-next-steps#:~:text=In%20the%20instant%20decision%2C%20the,%2C%20by%20the%20year%202028)
- US Department of Health and Human Services. Limited English Proficiency (LEP). 2023 [cited 2023 July 25]. Available from: https://www.hhs.gov/civil-rights/for-individuals/special-topics/limited-english-proficiency/index.html
- Pilar O, Shin T Language is not a barrier—it is an opportunity to improve health equity through education. 2023 [cited 2023 July 25]. Available from: https://www.healthaffairs.org/content/forefront/language-not-barrier-opportunity-improve-health-equity-through-education
- Al Shamsi H, Almutairi AG, Al Mashrafi S, et al. Implications of language barriers for healthcare: a systematic review. Oman Med J. 2020 Mar;35(2):e122. doi: 10.5001/omj.2020.40
- Divi C, Koss RG, Schmaltz SP, et al. Language proficiency and adverse events in US hospitals: a pilot study. Int J Qual Health Care. 2007 Apr;19(2):60–67. doi: 10.1093/intqhc/mzl069
- Health Resources & Services Administration (HRSA). Culture, Language, And Health Literacy. 2024 [cited 2024 Jan 21]. Available from: https://www.hrsa.gov/about/organization/bureaus/ohe/health-literacy/culture-language-and-health-literacy
- Youdelman MK. The medical tongue: U.S. laws and policies on language access. Health Aff. 2008 Mar-Apr;27(2):424–433. doi: 10.1377/hlthaff.27.2.424
- Soto Mas F, Ji M, Fuentes BO, et al. The health literacy and ESL study: a community-based intervention for Spanish-speaking adults. J Health Commun. 2015 Apr;20(4):369–376.
- Coplan B, Todd M, Stoehr J, et al. Holistic admissions and underrepresented minorities in physician assistant programs. J Physician Assist Educ. 2021 Mar 1;32(1):10–19. doi: 10.1097/jpa.0000000000000337
- Conrad SS, Addams AN, Young GH. Holistic review in medical school admissions and selection: a strategic, mission-driven response to shifting societal needs. Acad Med. 2016 Nov;91(11):1472–1474. doi: 10.1097/acm.0000000000001403
- Grbic D, Morrison E, Sondheimer HM, et al. The association between a holistic review in admissions workshop and the diversity of accepted applicants and students matriculating to medical school. Acad Med. 2019 Mar;94(3):396–403.
- Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC). Holistic Review. 2024 [cited 2024 Jan 10]. Available from: https://www.aamc.org/services/member-capacity-building/holistic-review
- Stegers-Jager KM, Brommet FN, Themmen APN. Ethnic and social disparities in different types of examinations in undergraduate pre-clinical training. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract. 2016 Dec;21(5):1023–1046. doi: 10.1007/s10459-016-9676-7
- Woolf K, Haq I, McManus IC, et al. Exploring the underperformance of male and minority ethnic medical students in first year clinical examinations. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract. 2008 Dec;13(5):607–616. doi: 10.1007/s10459-007-9067-1
- Font-Rivera A, Rodriguez-Torres J. Strategies for passing the physical therapy licensure examination for students with English as a second Language: experience at the University of Puerto Rico DPT program. J Allied Health Winter. 2022;51(4):281–284.
- Chen LL, Epperson C Enhancing Limited English Proficiency (LEP) students’ learning with a learning management system (LMS). World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education. 2024 [cited 2024 Jan 10]. Available from: https://www.learntechlib.org/p/30191/
- Wan Azli W, Shah P, Maslawati M. Perception on the usage of mobile assisted language learning (MALL) in English as a second language (ESL) learning among vocational college students. Creative Educ. 2018;9(1):84–98. doi: 10.4236/ce.2018.91008
- Attrill S, Lincoln M, McAllister S. Supervising international students in clinical placements: perceptions of experiences and factors influencing competency development. BMC Med Educ. 2016 Jul 16;16(1):180.
- Baca AR, Saysanasongkham S, Wallace C, et al. Creation and analysis of a Lao American collaborative medical education facebook page. Educ Health (Abingdon). 2023 Jan-Apr;36(1):47–48. doi: 10.4103/efh.efh_241_21
- Mohanna K. Supporting learners who are studying or training using a second language: preventing problems and maximising potential. Ann Acad Med Singap. 2008 Dec;37(12):1034–1037. doi: 10.47102/annals-acadmedsg.V37N12p1034
- U.S. Census Bureau. Language Use in the United States: 2019 [cited 2023 July 25]. Available from: https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2022/acs/acs-50.pdf
- The centralized application service for Physician assistants (CASPA). Other Information: Language Proficiency. 2024 [cited 2024 Jan 25]. Available from: https://help.liaisonedu.com/CASPA_Applicant_Help_Center/Filling_Out_Your_CASPA_Application/CASPA_Personal_Information/08_Other_Information
- Girotti JA, Park YS, Tekian A. Ensuring a fair and equitable selection of students to serve society’s health care needs. Med Educ. 2015 Jan;49(1):84–92. doi: 10.1111/medu.12506
- Amano T, Ramírez-Castañeda V, Berdejo-Espinola V, et al. The manifold costs of being a non-native English speaker in science. PLoS Biol. 2023 Jul;21(7):e3002184.