Reading Difficulties in Adult Deaf Readers of French: Phonological Codes, Not Guilty!

REFERENCES

• Allen , T. 1986 . “ A study of the achievement patterns of hearing-impaired students: 1974–1983 ” . In Deaf children in America , Edited by: Schildroth , A. N. and Karchmer , M. A. 161 – 206 . San Diego , CA : College-Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Baayen , R. H. 2008 . Analyzing linguistic data: A practical introduction to statistics , Cambridge , , UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Baayen , R. H. , Davidson , D. H. and Bates , D. M. 2008 . Mixed-effects modeling with crossed random effects for subjects and items . Journal of Memory and Language , 59 : 390 – 412 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baddeley , A. D. 1966 . Short-term memory for word sequences as a function of acoustic, semantic, or formal similarity . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 18 : 362 – 365 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baddeley , A. D. 2003 . Working memory and language: An overview . Journal of Communication Disorders , 36 ( 3 ) : 189 – 208 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baddeley , A. D. and Logie , R. H. 1999 . “ Working memory: The multiple component model ” . In Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control , Edited by: Miyake , A. and Shah , P. 28 – 61 . Cambridge , , UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bates, D., Maechler, M., & Dai, B. (2009). lme4: Linear mixed-effects models using S4 classes. R package version 0.999375-28. http://lme4.r-forge.r-project.org/ (http://lme4.r-forge.r-project.org/)
   Google Scholar
• Berent , I. 1997 . Phonological priming in the lexical decision task: Regularity effects are not necessary evidence for assembly . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance , 23 : 1727 – 1742 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burden , V. and Campbell , R. 1994 . The development of word-coding skills in the born deaf: An experimental study of deaf school-leavers . The British Journal of Developmental Psychology , 12 : 331 – 349 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chamberlain , C. 2002 . “ Reading skills of deaf adults who sign: Good and poor readers compared ” . In Unpublished doctoral dissertation, McGill University , Canada : Montreal .
   Google Scholar
• Chamberlain , C. and Mayberry , R. I. 2008 . ASL syntactic and narrative comprehension in good and poor deaf readers: Bilingual–bimodal evidence for the linguistic basis of reading . Applied Psycholinguistics , 29 : 367 – 388 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chincotta , D. , Underwood , G. , Ghani , K. A. , Papadopoulou , E. and Wresinski , M. 1999 . Memory span for Arabic numerals and digit words: Evidence for a limited-capacity, visuo-spatial storage system . The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A: Human Experimental Psychology , 52 : 325 – 351 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conrad , R. 1979 . The deaf schoolchild: Language and cognitive function , London : Harper & Row .
   Google Scholar
• Conrad , R. and Hull , A. J. 1964 . Information, acoustic confusion and memory span . British Journal of Psychology , 55 : 429 – 432 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cripps , J. H. , McBride , K. A. and Forster , K. I. 2005 . Lexical processing with deaf and hearing: Phonology and orthographic masked priming . Arizona Working Papers in Second Language Acquisition and Teaching , 12 : 31 – 44 .
   Google Scholar
• Daigle , D. , Armand , F. , Demont , E. and Gombert , J.-E. 2009 . Visuo-orthographic knowledge in deaf readers of French . Revue Canadienne de Linguistique Appliquée , 12 : 105 – 128 .
   Google Scholar
• Diependaele , K. , Ziegler , J. and Grainger , J. 2010 . Fast phonology and the Bimodal Interactive Activation Model . European Journal of Cognitive Psychology , 22 : 764 – 778 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiFrancesca , S. 1972 . Academic achievement test results of a national testing program for hearing-impaired students , Washington , DC : Gallaudet College, Office of Demographic Studies .
   Google Scholar
• Dyer , A. , MacSwenney , M. , Szczerbinski , M. , Green , L. and Campbell , R. 2003 . Predictors of reading delay in deaf adolescents: The relative contributions of rapid automatized naming speed and phonological awareness and decoding . Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education , 8 : 215
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ferrand , L. 2001 . “ Cognition et lecture. Processus de base de la reconnaissance des mots écrits chez l'adulte ” . In [Cognition and reading. Written word recognition processes in adults]. Brussels , Belgium : DeBoeck Université .
   Google Scholar
• Ferrand , L. and Grainger , J. 1993 . The time course of orthographic and phonological code activation in the early phases of visual word recognition . Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society , 31 : 119 – 122 .
   Google Scholar
• Ferrand , L. and Grainger , J. 1994 . Effects of orthography are independent of phonology in masked form priming . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology , 47 : 365 – 382 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forster , K. I. and Forster , J. C. 2003 . DMDX: A Windows display program with millisecond accuracy . Behavior Research Methods, Instruments & Computers , 35 : 116 – 124 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Forster , K. I. , Mohan , K. and Hector , J. 2003 . “ The mechanics of masked priming ” . In Masked priming: State of the art , Edited by: Kinoshita , S. and Lupker , S. J. 3 – 37 . Hove , , UK : Psychology Press .
   Google Scholar
• Frost , R. 1998 . Towards a strong phonological theory of visual word recognition: True issues and false trails . Psychological Bulletin , 123 : 71 – 99 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frost , R. , Ahissar , M. , Gotesman , R. and Tayeb , S. 2003 . Are phonological effects fragile? The effect of luminance and exposure duration on form priming and phonological priming . Journal of Memory and Language , 48 : 346 – 378 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallaudet Research Institute . 2004 . Stanford Achievement Tests: Norms booklet for deaf and hard of hearing students , Washington , DC : Author .
   Google Scholar
• Goldin-Meadow , S. and Mayberry , R. I. 2001 . How do profoundly deaf children learn to read? . Learning Disabilities Research & Practice , 16 : 222 – 229 .
   Google Scholar
• Grainger , J. and Ferrand , L. 1996 . Masked orthographic and phonological priming in visual word recognition and naming: Cross-task comparisons . Journal of Memory and Language , 35 : 623 – 647 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grainger , J. and Holcomb , P.J. 2008 . “ Neural constraints on a functional architecture for word recognition ” . In The neural basis of reading , Edited by: Cornelissen , P. , Hansen , P. , Kringelbach , M. and Pugh , K. 3 – 33 . Oxford , , UK : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Grainger , J. and Holcomb , P. J . 2009 . Watching the word go by: On the time-course of component processes in visual word recognition . Language and Linguistics Compass , 3 ( 1 ) : 128 – 156 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Haarmann , H. J. , Davelaar , E. J. and Usher , M. 2003 . Individual differences in semantic short-term memory capacity and reading comprehension . Journal of Memory and Language , 48 : 320 – 345 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall , M. and Bavelier , D. 2010 . “ Working memory, deafness and sign language ” . In The handbook of deaf studies, language and education , Edited by: Marschark , M. and Spencer , P. E. 458 – 472 . Oxford , , UK : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hanson , V. 1982 . Short-term recall by deaf signers of American Sign Language: Implications for order recall . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 8 : 572 – 583 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson , V. 1986 . Access to spoken language and the acquisition of orthographic structure: Evidence from deaf readers . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 38A : 193 – 212 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson , V. 1990 . Recall of order information by deaf signers: Phonetic coding in temporal order recall . Memory & Cognition , 18 : 604 – 610 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson , V. and Fowler , C. 1987 . Phonological coding in word reading: Evidence from hearing and deaf readers . Memory & Cognition , 15 : 199 – 207 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson , V. , Goodell , E. W. and Perfetti , C. 1991 . Tongue-twister effects in the silent reading of hearing and deaf college students . Journal of Memory and Language , 30 : 319
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson , V. L. , Liberman , I. Y. and Shankweiler , D. 1984 . Linguistic coding by deaf children in relation to beginning reading success . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 37 : 378 – 393 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris , M. and Moreno , C. 2004 . Deaf children's use of phonological coding: Evidence from reading, spelling and working memory . Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education , 9 : 253 – 268 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kelly , L. and Barac-Cikoja , D. 2007 . “ The comprehension of skilled deaf readers: The roles of word recognition and other potentially critical aspects of competence ” . In Children's comprehension problems in oral and written language: A cognitive perspective , Edited by: Cain , K. and Oakhill , J. 244 – 279 . New York , NY : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Lee , H.-W. , Rayner , K. and Pollastek , A. 1999 . The time course of phonological, semantic and orthographic coding in reading: Evidence from the fast-priming technique . Psychonomic Bulletin & Review , 6 : 624 – 634 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leybaert , J. and Alegria , J. 1993 . Is word processing involuntary in deaf children? . British Journal of Developmental Psychology , 11 : 1 – 29 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lichtenstein , E. H. 1998 . The relationship between reading processes and English skills of deaf college students . Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education , 3 : 80 – 134 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Logie , R. H. , Della Sala , S. , Wynn , V. and Baddeley , A. D. 2000 . Visual similarity effects in immediate verbal serial recall . The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A: Human Experimental Psychology , 53 : 626 – 646 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luckner , J. L. and Handley , C. M. 2008 . A summary of the reading comprehension research undertaken with students who are deaf or hard of hearing . American Annals of the Deaf, , 153 ( 1 ) : 6 – 36 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin , R. C. 2005 . Components of short-term memory and their relation to language processing. Evidence from neuropsychology and neuroimaging . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 14 : 204 – 208 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayberry , R. I. 2007 . When timing is everything: Age of first-language acquisition effects on second-language learning . Applied Psycholinguistics , 28 : 537 – 549 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayberry , R. I. , Chamberlain , C. , Waters , G. and Hwang , P. April 2005 . Word recognition in children who are deaf and sign , April , Atlanta , , Georgia : Poster presented at the Society for Research in Child Development .
   Google Scholar
• Mayberry , R. I. , Del Giudice , A. and Lieberman , A. 2011 . Reading achievement in relation to phonological coding and awareness in deaf readers: A meta-analysis . Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education , 16 ( 2 ) : 164 – 188 . doi: 10.1093/deafed/enq049
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McQuarrie , L. and Parrila , R. 2009 . Phonological representations in deaf children: Rethinking the “Functional Equivalence” hypothesis . Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education , 14 : 137 – 154 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , P. 2006 . What the processing of real words and pseudohomophones can tell us about the development of orthographic knowledge in prelingually deafened individuals . Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education , 11 ( 1 ) : 21 – 38 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , P. 2007 . The role of phonology in the word decoding skills of poor readers: Evidence from individuals with prelingual deafness or diagnosed dyslexia . Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities , 19 : 385 – 408 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Padden , C. A. and Ramsey , C. 2000 . “ American Sign Language and reading ability in deaf children ” . In Language acquisition by eye , Edited by: Chamberlain , C. , Morford , J. P. and Mayberry , R. I. 165 – 189 . Mahwah , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Perfetti , C. A. and Sandak , R. 2000 . Reading optimally builds on spoken language: Implications for deaf readers . Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education , 5 ( 1 ) : 32 – 50 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• R Development Core Team . 2008 . R: A language and environment for statistical computing , Vienna , , Austria : R Foundation for Statistical Computing .
   Google Scholar
• Reinwein , J. , Dubuisson , C. and Bastien , M. 2001 . Étude des processus d'intégration chez le lecteur sourd et chez le lecteur entendant . Revue Québécoise de Linguistique , 29 : 95 – 115 .
   Google Scholar
• Sarrazin , G. 1996 . “ Test de rendement pour francophones ” . In [Performance Test for French Speakers] , Toronto , , Canada : Harcourt & Brace .
   Google Scholar
• Shivde , G. S. and Thompson-Schill , S. L. 2004 . Dissociating semantic and phonological maintenance using fMRI . Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience , 4 ( 1 ) : 10 – 19 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strong , M. and Prinz , P. 2000 . “ Is American Sign Language skill related to English literacy? ” . In Language acquisition by eye , Edited by: Chamberlain , C. , Morford , J. P. and Mayberry , R. I. 131 – 142 . Mahwah , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Transler , C. , Leybaert , J. and Gombert , J. E. 1999 . Do deaf children use phonological syllables as reading units? . Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education , 4 : 124 – 143 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Treiman , R. and Hirsh-Pasek , K. 1983 . Silent reading: Insights from second-generation deaf readers . Cognitive Psychology , 15 : 39 – 65 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Wijnendaele , I. and Brysbaert , M. 2002 . Visual word recognition in bilinguals: Phonological priming from the second to the first language . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance , 28 : 616 – 627 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venables , W. N. and Ripley , B. D. 2002 . Modern applied statistics with S , 4th , New York , NY : Springer .
   Google Scholar
• Wagner , R. K. and Torgesen , J. K. 1987 . The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills . Psychological Bulletin , 101 : 1 – 21 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waters , G. and Doehring , D. 1990 . “ Reading acquisition in congenitally deaf children who communicate orally: Insights from an analysis of component reading, language, and memory skills ” . In Reading and its development: Component skills approaches , Edited by: Carr , T. H. and Levy , B. A. 323 – 373 . New York , NY : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Weekes , B. , Chen , M. J. and Lin , Y. B. 1998 . Differential effects of phonological priming on Chinese character recognition . Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal , 10 : 201 – 222 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziegler , J. , Ferrand , L. , Jacobs , A. M. , Rey , A. and Grainger , J. 2000 . Visual and phonological codes in letter and word recognition: Evidence from incremental priming . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 53A : 671 – 692 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar