Modeling the Length Effect: Specifying the Relation With Visual and Phonological Correlates of Reading

REFERENCES

• Ans , B. , Carbonnel , S. and Valdois , S. 1998 . A connectionist multiple-trace memory model for polysyllabic word reading . Psychological Review , 105 : 678 – 723 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bleichrodt , N. , Drenth , P. J. D. , Zaal , J. N. and Resing , W. C. M. 1984 . Revisie Amsterdamse Kinder Intelligentie Test , Lisse , , the Netherlands : Swets & Zeitlinger . [Revised Amsterdam Child Intelligence Test]
   Google Scholar
• Bosse , M. L. , Tainturier , M. J. and Valdois , S. 2007 . Developmental dyslexia: The visual attention span deficit hypothesis . Cognition , 104 : 198 – 230 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bosse , M. L. and Valdois , S. 2009 . Influence of the visual attention span on child reading performance: A cross-sectional study . Journal of Research in Reading , 32 : 230 – 253 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Browne , M. W. and Cudeck , R. 1993 . “ Alternative ways of assessing model fit ” . In Testing structural equation models , Edited by: Bollen , K. A. and Long , J. S. 136 – 162 . Newbury Park , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Brus , B. and Voeten , B. 1995 . Eén minuut test vorm A en B. Verantwoording en handleiding , Lisse , , the Netherlands : Swets & Zeitlinger . [One-minute-test manual]
   Google Scholar
• Coltheart , M. , Rastle , K. , Perry , C. , Langdon , R. and Ziegler , J. 2001 . DRC: A dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud . Psychological Review , 108 : 204 – 256 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Compton , D. L. , DeFries , J. C. and Olson , R. K. 2001 . Are RAN- and phonological awareness-deficits additive in children with reading disabilities? . Dyslexia , 7 : 125 – 149 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• de Jong , P. F. 2011 . What discrete and serial rapid automatized naming can reveal about reading . Scientific Studies of Reading , 15 : 314 – 337 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Jong , P. F. and van der Leij , A. 1999 . Specific contributions of phonological abilities to early reading acquisition: Results from a Dutch latent variable longitudinal study . Journal of Educational Psychology , 91 : 450 – 476 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Jong , P. F. and van der Leij , A. 2003 . Developmental changes in the manifestation of a phonological deficit in dyslexic children learning to read a regular orthography . Journal of Educational Psychology , 95 : 22 – 40 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Luca , M. , Barca , L. , Burani , C. and Zoccolotti , P. 2008 . The effect of word length and other sublexical, lexical, and semantic variables on developmental reading deficits . Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology , 21 : 227 – 235 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawelka , S. , Gagl , B. and Wimmer , H. 2010 . A dual-route perspective on eye movements of dyslexic readers . Cognition , 115 : 367 – 379 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawelka , S. and Wimmer , H. 2005 . Impaired visual processing of multi-element arrays is associated with increased number of eye movements in dyslexic reading . Vision Research , 45 : 855 – 863 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayduk , L. A. 1996 . LISREL issues, debates and strategies , Baltimore , MD : Johns Hopkins University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hu , L. and Bentler , P. M. 1999 . Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives . Structural Equation Modeling , 6 : 1 – 55 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson , N. E. and Coltheart , M. 2001 . Routes to reading success and failure: Toward an integrated cognitive psychology of atypical reading , New York, NY : Taylor & Francis .
   Google Scholar
• Johnston , R. S. , Rugg , M. D. and Scott , T. 1987 . Phonological similarity effects, memory span and developmental reading disorders: The nature of the relationship . British Journal of Psychology , 78 : 205 – 211 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaplan , D. 2009 . Structural equation modeling: Foundations and extensions , 2nd , Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Keene , O. N. 1995 . The log transformation is special . Statistics in Medicine , 14 : 811 – 819 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirby , J. R. , Parrila , R. and Pfeiffer , S. 2003 . Naming speed and phonological awareness as predictors of reading development . Journal of Educational Psychology , 95 : 453 – 464 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kline , R. B. 2011 . Principles and practice of structural equation modeling , 3rd , New York, NY : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Landerl , K. and Wimmer , H. 2008 . Development of word reading fluency and spelling in a consistent orthography: An 8-year follow-up . Journal of Educational Psychology , 100 : 150 – 161 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lervåg , A. , Bråten , I. and Hulme , C. 2009 . The cognitive and linguistic foundations of early reading development: A Norwegian latent variable longitudinal study . Developmental Psychology , 45 : 764 – 781 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lobier , M. , Zoubrinetzky , R. and Valdois , S. 2012 . The visual attention span deficit in dyslexia is visual and not verbal . Cortex , 48 : 768 – 773 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lovett , M. W. , Steinbach , K. A. and Frijters , J. C. 2000 . Remediating the core deficits of developmental reading disability: A double-deficit perspective . Journal of Learning Disabilities , 33 : 334 – 358 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marinus , E. and de Jong , P. F. 2010 . Variability in the word-reading performance of dyslexic readers: Effects of letter length, phoneme length and digraph presence . Cortex , 46 : 1259 – 1271 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McBride-Chang , C. and Manis , F. R. 1996 . Structural invariance in the associations of naming speed, phonological awareness, and verbal reasoning in good and poor readers: A test of the double deficit hypothesis . Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal , 8 : 323 – 339 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCallum , R. S. , Bell , S. M. , Wood , M. S. , Below , J. L. , Choate , S. M. and McCane , S. J. 2006 . What is the role of working memory in reading relative to the big three processing variables (orthography, phonology, and rapid naming)? . Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment , 24 : 243 – 259 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moll , K. , Fussenegger , B. , Willburger , E. and Landerl , K. 2009 . RAN is not a measure of orthographic processing. Evidence from the asymmetric German orthography . Scientific Studies of Reading , 13 : 1 – 25 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muthén , L. K. and Muthén , B. O. 2009 . Mplus (Version 5.21) [Computer software] , Los Angeles , CA : Muthén & Muthén .
   Google Scholar
• Pammer , K. , Lavis , R. , Hansen , P. and Cornelissen , P. L. 2004 . Symbol-string sensitivity and children's reading . Brain and Language , 89 : 601 – 610 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parrila , R. , Kirby , J. R. and McQuarrie , L. 2004 . Articulation rate, naming speed, verbal short-term memory, and phonological awareness: Longitudinal predictors of early reading development? . Scientific Studies of Reading , 8 : 3 – 26 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perry , C. , Ziegler , J. C. and Zorzi , M. 2007 . Nested incremental modeling in the development of computational theories: The CDP model of reading aloud . Psychological Review , 114 : 273 – 315 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powell , D. , Stainthorp , R. , Stuart , M. , Garwood , H. and Quinlan , P. 2007 . An experimental comparison between rival theories of rapid automatized naming performance and its relationship to reading . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 98 : 46 – 68 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prado , C. , Dubois , M. and Valdois , S. 2007 . The eye movements of dyslexic children during reading and visual search: Impact of the visual attention span . Vision Research , 47 : 2521 – 2530 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raven , J. C. 1960 . Standard progressive Matrices: Sets A, B, C, D and E , London , , UK : Lewis & Co .
   Google Scholar
• Schneider , W. , Eschman , A. and Zuccolotto , A. 2002 . E-prime: User's guide , Pittsburgh , PA : Psychology Software Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Schrooten , W. and Vermeer , A. 1994 . Woorden in het basisonderwijs: 15.000 woorden aangeboden aan leerlingen [Words in primary education: 15.000 words presented to students] , Tilburg , , the Netherlands : Tilburg University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Share , D. L. 1995 . Phonological recoding and self-teaching: Sine qua non of reading acquisition . Cognition , 55 : 151 – 218 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Share , D. L. 1999 . Phonological recoding and orthographic learning: A direct test of the self-teaching hypothesis . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 72 : 95 – 129 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spinelli , D. , de Luca , M. , Filippo , G. D. , Mancini , M. , Martelli , M. and Zoccolotti , P. 2005 . Length effect in word naming in reading: Role of reading experience and reading deficit in Italian readers . Developmental Neuropsychology , 27 : 217 – 235 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabachnick , B. G. and Fidell , L. S. 2001 . Using multivariate statistics , 4th , Boston , MA : Allyn & Bacon .
   Google Scholar
• Torgesen , J. K. , Wagner , R. K. , Rashotte , C. A. , Burgess , S. and Hecht , S. 1997 . Contributions of phonological awareness and rapid automatic naming ability to the growth of word-reading skills in second- to fifth-grade children . Scientific Studies of Reading , 1 : 161 – 185 .
   Google Scholar
• Vaessen , A. and Blomert , L. 2010 . Long-term cognitive dynamics of fluent reading development . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 105 : 213 – 231 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valdois , S. , Bosse , M. L. , Ans , B. , Carbonnel , S. , Zorman , M. , David , D. and Pellat , J. 2003 . Phonological and visual processing deficits can dissociate in developmental dyslexia: Evidence from two case studies . Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal , 16 : 541 – 572 .
   Google Scholar
• Valdois , S. , Bosse , M. L. and Tainturier , M. J. 2004 . The cognitive deficits responsible for developmental dyslexia: Review of evidence for a selective visual attentional disorder . Dyslexia , 10 : 339 – 363 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valdois , S. , Carbonnel , S. , Juphard , A. , Baciu , M. , Ans , B. , Peyrin , C. and Segebarth , C. 2006 . Polysyllabic pseudo-word processing in reading and lexical decision: Converging evidence from behavioral data, connectionist simulations and functional MRI . Brain Research , 1085 : 149 – 162 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vellutino , F. R. , Fletcher , J. M. , Snowling , M. J. and Scanlon , D. M. 2004 . Specific reading disability (dyslexia): What have we learned in the past four decades? . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 45 : 2 – 40 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagner , R. K. and Torgesen , J. K. 1987 . The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills . Psychological Bulletin , 101 : 192 – 212 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wimmer , H. , Mayringer , H. and Landerl , K. 2000 . The double-deficit hypothesis and difficulties in learning to read a regular orthography . Journal of Educational Psychology , 92 : 668 – 680 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf , M. and Bowers , P. G. 1999 . The double-deficit hypothesis for the developmental dyslexias . Journal of Educational Psychology , 91 : 415 – 438 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf , M. , O'Rourke , A.G. , Gidney , C. , Lovett , M. , Cirino , P. and Morris , R. 2002 . The second deficit: An investigation of the independence of phonological and naming-speed deficits in developmental dyslexia . Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal , 15 : 43 – 72 .
   Google Scholar
• Ziegler , J. C. , Bertrand , D. , Toth , D. , Csépe , V. , Reis , A. , Faísca , L. … and Blomert , L. 2010 . Orthographic depth and its impact on universal predictors of reading: A cross-language investigation . Psychological Science , 21 : 554 – 559 .
   Google Scholar
• Ziegler , J. C. , Castel , C. , Pech-Georgel , C. , George , F. , Alaria , F. X. and Perry , C. 2008 . Developmental dyslexia and the dual route model of reading: Simulating individual differences and subtypes . Cognition , 107 : 151 – 178 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziegler , J. C. , Pech-Georgel , C. , Dufau , S. and Grainger , J. 2010 . Rapid processing of letters, digits, and symbols: What purely visual-attentional deficit in developmental dyslexia? . Developmental Science , 13 : F8 – F14 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziegler , J. C. , Perry , C. , Ma-Wyatt , A. , Ladner , D. and Schulte-Körne , G. 2003 . Developmental dyslexia in different languages: Language specific or universal? . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 86 : 169 – 193 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zoccolotti , P. , de Luca , M. , di Pace , E. , Gasperini , F. , Judica , A. and Spinelli , D. 2005 . Word length effect in early reading and in developmental dyslexia . Brain and Language , 93 : 369 – 373 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar