Comparison of in-person and virtual Grand Canyon undergraduate field trip learning outcomes

References

• Ainsworth, S., & Loizou, A. T. (2003). The effects of self‐explaining when learning with text or diagrams. Cognitive Science, 27(4), 669–681. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog2704_5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anastacio, F., et al. (2006). Modeling plant structures using concept sketches. Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Non-Photorealistic Animation and Rendering. ACM.
   Google Scholar
• Arrowsmith, C., Counihan, A., & McGreevy, D. (2005). Development of a multi-scaled virtual field trip for the teaching and learning of geospatial science. International Journal of Education and Development Using ICT, 1(3), 42–56.
   Google Scholar
• Atchison, C. L., & Feig, A. D. (2011). Theoretical perspectives on constructing experience through alternative field-based learning environments for students with mobility impairments. Qualitative Inquiry in Geoscience Education Research, 44(2), 11–21.
   Google Scholar
• Atchison, C. L., & Libarkin, J. C. (2013). Fostering accessibility in geoscience training programs. Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union, 94(44), 400–400. https://doi.org/10.1002/2013EO440005
   Google Scholar
• Baker, M. A. (2006). Status report on geoscience summer field camps: American Geological Institute Report GW-06.003, 8. American Geosciences Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Behrendt, M., & Franklin, T. (2014). A review of research on school field trips and their value in education. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 9(3), 235–245. https://doi.org/10.12973/ijese.2014.213a
   Google Scholar
• Bernard, R. E., & Cooperdock, E. H. (2018). No progress on diversity in 40 years. Nature Geoscience, 11(5), 292–295. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-018-0116-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyle, A., Maguire, S., Martin, A., Milsom, C., Nash, R., Rawlinson, S., Turner, A., Wurthmann, S., & Conchie, S. (2007). Fieldwork is good: The student perception and the affective domain. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 31(2), 299–317. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098260601063628
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bursztyn, N., Shelton, B., Walker, A., & Pederson, J. (2017a). Increasing undergraduate interest to learn geoscience with GPS-based augmented-reality field trips on students’ own smartphones. GSA Today, 27(6), 4–10. https://doi.org/10.1130/GSATG304A.1
   Google Scholar
• Bursztyn, N., Walker, A., Shelton, B., & Pederson, J. (2017b). Assessment of student learning using augmented-reality Grand Canyon field trips for mobile smart devices. Geosphere, 13(2), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1130/GES01404.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carabajal, I. G., Marshall, A. M., & Atchison, C. L. (2017). A synthesis of instructional strategies in geoscience education literature that address barriers to inclusion for students with disabilities. Journal of Geoscience Education, 65(4), 531–541. https://doi.org/10.5408/16-211.1
   Google Scholar
• Carmichael, P., & Tscholl, M. (2013). Cases, simulacra, and Semantic Web technologies. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 29(1), 31–42. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2729.2011.00459.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cassady, J. C., Kozlowski, A. G., & Kommann, M. A. (2008). Electronic field trips as interactive learning events: Promoting student learning at a distance. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 19(3), 439.
   Google Scholar
• Cassady, J. C., & Mullen, L. J. (2006). Reconceptualizing electronic field trips: A Deweyian perspective. Learning, Media and Technology, 31(2), 149–161. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439880600756720
   Google Scholar
• Chi, M. H., Adams, J., Bogusch, E. B., Bruchok, C., Kang, S., Lancaster, M., Levy, R., Li, N., McEldoon, K. L., Stump, G. S., Wylie, R., Xu, D., & Yaghmourian, D. L. (2018). Translating the ICAP theory of cognitive engagement into practice. Cognitive Science, 42(6), 1777–1832. https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12626
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chi, M. T., & Wylie, R. (2014). The ICAP framework: Linking cognitive engagement to active learning outcomes. Educational Psychologist, 49(4), 219–243. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2014.965823
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cliffe, A. D. (2017). A review of the benefits and drawbacks to virtual field guides in today’s geoscience higher education environment. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 14(1), 28. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-017-0066-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Compton, R. R. (1962). Manual of field geology. John Wiley and Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Cooke, M. L., Anderson, K. S., & Forrest, S. E. (1997). Creating accessible introductory geology field trips. Journal of Geoscience Education, 45(1), 4–9. https://doi.org/10.5408/1089-9995-45.1.4
   Google Scholar
• Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative & quantitative approaches. Sage Publications, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Crow, K. L. (2008). Four types of disabilities: Their impact on online learning. TechTrends, 52(1), 51.
   Google Scholar
• De Paor, D. G., & Whitmeyer, S. J. (2009). Innovation and obsolescence in geoscience field courses: Past experiences and proposals for the future. In S. J. Whitmeyer, D. W. Mogk, & E. J. Pyle (Eds.), Field geology education: Historical perspectives and modern approaches: GSA Special Paper 461 (pp. 45–56). Geological Society of America.
   Google Scholar
• Elkins, J. T., & Elkins, N. M. (2007). Teaching geology in the field: Significant geoscience concept gains in entirely field-based introductory geology courses. Journal of Geoscience Education, 55(2), 126–132. https://doi.org/10.5408/1089-9995-55.2.126
   Google Scholar
• Freeman, S., Eddy, S. L., McDonough, M., Smith, M. K., Okoroafor, N., Jordt, H., & Wenderoth, M. P. (2014). Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(23), 8410–8415. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1319030111
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuller, I. C. (2006). What is the value of fieldwork? Answers from New Zealand using two contrasting undergraduate physical geography field trips. New Zealand Geographer, 62(3), 215–220. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-7939.2006.00072.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garner, L. C., & Gallo, M. A. (2005). Field trips and their effect on student achievement and attitudes: A comparison of physical versus virtual field trips to the Indian River Lagoon. Journal of College Science Teaching, 34(5), 14.
   Google Scholar
• Gillette, R. (1972). Minorities in the geosciences: Beyond the open door. Science (New York, N.Y.), 177(4044), 148–151. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.177.4044.148
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilley, B., Atchison, C., Feig, A., & Stokes, A. (2015). Impact of inclusive field trips. Nature Geoscience, 8(8), 579–580. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2500
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glesne, C., & Peshkin, A. (1992). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction (p. 6). Longman.
   Google Scholar
• Gonzales, D., & Semken, S. (2009). A comparative study of field-inquiry in an undergraduate petrology course. In S. J. Whitmeyer, D. W. Mogk, & E. J. Pyle (Eds.), Field geology education: Historical perspectives and modern approaches: GSA Special Paper 461 (pp. 205–221). Geological Society of America.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, J. K., & Reynolds, S. J. (2005). Concept sketches-using student-and instructor- generated, annotated sketches for learning, teaching, and assessment in geology courses. Journal of Geoscience Education, 53(1), 85–95. https://doi.org/10.5408/1089-9995-53.1.85
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, J. K., Reynolds, S. J., Tyburczy, J., Busch, M. M., & Coyan, J. A. (2009). Resolving the breadth versus depth versus inquiry dilemma in introductory college geology courses [Abstract]. Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, 41(7), 156.
   Google Scholar
• Jones, J. C., & Washko, S. (2022). More than fun in the sun: The pedagogy of field trips improves student learning in higher education. Journal of Geoscience Education, 70(3), 292–305. https://doi.org/10.1080/10899995.2021.1984176
   Google Scholar
• Karlstrom, K., & Crossey, L. (2019). The Grand Canyon Trail of Time companion: Geology essentials for your Canyon adventure. Self-published.
   Google Scholar
• Karlstrom, K. E., Ilg, B. R., Williams, M. L., & Dumond, G. (2012). Chapter 2: Vishnu basement rocks of the upper Granite Gorge: Continent formation 1.8 to 1.6 billion years ago. In J. M. Timmons & K. E. Karlstrom (Eds.), Grand Canyon geology: Two billion years of Earth’s history: Geological Society of America Special Paper 489 (pp. 7–24). Geological Society of America.
   Google Scholar
• Karlstrom, K., Semken, S., Crossey, L., Perry, D., Gyllenhaal, E. D., Dodick, J., Williams, M., Hellmich-Bryan, J., Crow, R., Watts, N. B., & Ault, C. (2008). Informal geoscience education on a grand scale: The Trail of Time exhibition at Grand Canyon. Journal of Geoscience Education, 56(4), 354–361. https://doi.org/10.5408/informal_geoscience_education_
   Google Scholar
• Karlstrom, K. E., & Timmons, J. M. (2012). Many unconformities make one “Great Unconformity. In J. M. Timmons & K. E. Karlstrom (Eds.). Grand Canyon geology: Two billion years of Earth’s history: Geological Society of America Special Paper 489 (pp. 73–79). Geological Society of America. https://doi.org/10.1130/2012.2489(04)
   Google Scholar
• Kastens, K. A., Manduca, C. A., Cervato, C., Frodeman, R., Goodwin, C., Liben, L. S., Mogk, D. W., Spangler, T. C., Stillings, N. A., & Titus, S. (2009). How geoscientists think and learn. EOS, Transactions American Geophysical Union, 90(31), 265–266. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009EO310001
   Google Scholar
• Kent, M., Gilbertson, D. D., & Hunt, C. O. (1997). Fieldwork in geography teaching: A critical review of the literature and approaches. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 21(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098269708725439
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kern, E. L., & Carpenter, J. R. (1986). Effect of field activities on student learning. Journal of Geological Education, 34(3), 180–183. https://doi.org/10.5408/0022-1368-34.3.180
   Google Scholar
• Kim, N. W., Joyner, S. C., Riegelhuth, A., & Kim, Y. (2021). Accessible visualization: Design space, opportunities, and challenges. Computer Graphics Forum, 40(3), 173–188. https://doi.org/10.1111/cgf.14298
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirschner, P. A., & De Bruyckere, P. (2017). The myths of the digital native and the multitasker. Teaching and Teacher Education, 67, 135–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.06.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klippel, A., Zhao, J., Jackson, K. L., Femina, P. L., Stubbs, C., Wetzel, R., Blair, J., Wallgrün, J. O., & Oprean, D. (2019). Transforming Earth science education through immersive experiences: Delivering on a long-held promise. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 57(7), 1745–1771. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633119854025
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klippel, A., Zhao, J., Oprean, D., Wallgrün, J. O., Stubbs, C., La Femina, P., & Jackson, K. L. (2020). The value of being there: Toward a science of immersive virtual field trips. Virtual Reality, 24(4), 753–770. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-019-00418-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kristianova, K., & Joklova, V. (2020 On-site research, excursions, and field trips in architectural education: Constraints in the time of COVID-19 [Paper presentation].Proceedings of ICERI 2020 Conference, November 9–10.
   Google Scholar
• Kulik, J. A., & Fletcher, J. D. (2016). Effectiveness of intelligent tutoring systems: A meta-analytic review. Review of Educational Research, 86(1), 42–78. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315581420
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaDue, N. D., & Pacheco, H. A. (2013). Critical experiences for field geologists: Emergent themes in interest development. Journal of Geoscience Education, 61(4), 428–436.
   Google Scholar
• Lawson, A. E. (1995). Science teaching and the development of thinking. Wadsworth.
   Google Scholar
• Lawson, A. E. (2003). The neurological basis of learning. Development and discovery: Implications for science & mathematics instruction. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Lazar, J., Allen, A., Kleinman, J., & Malarkey, C. (2007). What frustrates screen reader users on the web: A study of 100 blind users. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 22(3), 247–269. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447310709336964
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lei, S. A. (2015). Revisiting virtual field trips: Perspectives of college science instructors. Education, 135(3), 323–327.
   Google Scholar
• Lombardi, D., Shipley, T. F., Bailey, J. M., Bretones, P. S., Prather, E. E., Ballen, C. J., Knight, J. K., Smith, M. K., Stowe, R. L., Cooper, M. M., Prince, M., Atit, K., Uttal, D. H., LaDue, N. D., McNeal, P. M., Ryker, K., St. John, K., van der Hoeven Kraft, K. J., & Docktor, J. L., Astronomy Team, Biology Team, Chemistry Team, Engineering Team, Geography Team, Geoscience Team, and Physics Team (2021). The curious construct of active learning. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 22(1), 8–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100620973974
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McConnell, D. A., & van der Hoeven Kraft, K. J. (2011). Affective domain and student learning in the geosciences. Journal of Geoscience Education, 59(3), 106–110. https://doi.org/10.5408/1.3604828
   Google Scholar
• Mead, C., Bruce, G., Taylor, W., Buxner, S., & Anbar, A. D. (2022). Gamifying virtual exploration of the past 350 million years of vertebrate evolution. Frontiers in Education, 7, 836783. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.836783
   Google Scholar
• Mead, C., Buxner, S., Bruce, G., Taylor, W., Semken, S., & Anbar, A. D. (2019). Immersive, interactive virtual field trips promote science learning. Journal of Geoscience Education, 67(2), 131–142. https://doi.org/10.1080/10899995.2019.1565285
   Google Scholar
• Mogk, D. W., & Goodwin, C. (2012). Learning in the field: Synthesis of research on thinking and learning in the geosciences. In K. A. Kastens & C. A. Manduca (Eds.), Earth and mind II: A synthesis of research on thinking and learning in the geosciences: Geological Society of America Special Paper 486 (pp. 131–163). Geological Society of America.
   Google Scholar
• Morris, M. R., Johnson, J., Bennett, C. L., Cutrell, E. (2018). Rich representations of visual content for screen reader users. Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1145/3173574.3173633
   Google Scholar
• Nix, R. K. (1999). A critical evaluation of science-related virtual field trips available on the World Wide Web. Curtin University of Technology.
   Google Scholar
• O’Connell, K., Hoke, K., Berkowitz, A., Branchaw, J., & Storksdieck, M. (2021). Undergraduate learning in the field: Designing experiences, assessing outcomes, and exploring future opportunities. Journal of Geoscience Education, 69(4), 387–400. https://doi.org/10.1080/10899995.2020.1779567
   Google Scholar
• Orion, N. (1993). A model for the development and implementation of field trips as an integral part of the science curriculum. School Science and Mathematics, 93(6), 325–331. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1949-8594.1993.tb12254.x
   Google Scholar
• Orion, N., & Hofstein, A. (1994). Factors that influence learning during a scientific field trip in a natural environment. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31(10), 1097–1119. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660311005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peak, B. A., Flowers, R. M., Macdonald, F. A., & Cottle, J. M. (2021). Zircon (U-Th)/He thermochronology reveals pre-Great Unconformity paleotopography in the Grand Canyon region, USA. Geology, 49(12), 1462–1466. https://doi.org/10.1130/G49116.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petcovic, H. L., Stokes, A., & Caulkins, J. L. (2014). Geoscientists’ perceptions of the value of undergraduate field education. GSA Today, 24(7), 4–10. https://doi.org/10.1130/GSATG196A.1
   Google Scholar
• Petterson, R., Burmeister, K., Atchison, C., Skinner, S., Jones, A., & Finley, J. (2021). Virtual field trips as a tool for reducing anxieties and refocusing cognitive loads during in-person field activities [Abstract ED51A-06]. Presented at 2021 American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting, New Orleans, LA, 13–17 December.
   Google Scholar
• Pringle, J. K. (2013). Educational environmental geoscience e-gaming to provide stimulating and effective learning. Planet, 27(1), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.11120/plan.2013.27010021
   Google Scholar
• Pyle, E. J. (2009). The evaluation of field course experiences: A framework for development, improvement, and reporting. In S. J. Whitmeyer, D. W. Mogk, & E. J. Pyle (Eds.), Field geology education: Historical perspectives and modern approaches: GSA Special Paper 461 (pp. 341–356). Geological Society of America.
   Google Scholar
• Qiu, W., & Hubble, T. (2002). The advantages and disadvantages of virtual field trips in geoscience education. The China Papers, 1, 75–79.
   Google Scholar
• Ricketts, J. W., Roiz, J., Karlstrom, K. E., Heizler, M. T., Guenthner, W. R., & Timmons, J. M. (2021). Tectonic controls on basement exhumation in the southern Rocky Mountains. The power of combined zircon (U-Th)/He and K-feldspar 40Ar/39Ar thermochronology. Geology, 49(10), 1187–1192. https://doi.org/10.1130/G49141.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riggs, E. M., Balliet, R., & Lieder, C. C. (2009). Effectiveness in problem solving during geologic field examinations: Insights from analysis of GPS tracks at variable time scales. In S. J. Whitmeyer, D. W. Mogk, & E. J. Pyle (Eds.), Field geology education: Historical perspectives and modern approaches: GSA Special Paper 461 (pp. 323–340). Geological Society of America.
   Google Scholar
• Robinson, L. (2009). Virtual field trips: The pros and cons of an educational innovation. Computers in New Zealand Schools: Learning, Teaching, Technology, 21(1), 1–17.
   Google Scholar
• Rotzien, J., Sincavage, R., Pellowski, C., Gavillot, Y., Filkorn, H., Cooper, S., Shannon, J., Yildiz, U., Sawyer, F., & Uzunlar, N. (2021). Field-based geoscience education during the COVID-19 pandemic: Planning, execution, outcomes, and forecasts. GSA Today, 31(3–4), 4–10. https://doi.org/10.1130/GSATG483A.1
   Google Scholar
• Selwyn, N. (2009). The digital native – Myth and reality. Aslib Proceedings, 61(4), 364–379. https://doi.org/10.1108/00012530910973776
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Semken, S., Dodick, J., Ben-David, O., Pineda, M., Bueno Watts, N., Karlstrom, K. (2009). Timeline and time scale cognition experiments for a geological interpretative exhibit at Grand Canyon. Proceedings of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching.
   Google Scholar
• Shute, V., & Towle, B. (2018). Adaptive e-learning. In L. Corno, P. H. Winne, S. P. Lajoie, & P. C. Kyllonen (Eds.)., Educational psychologist (pp. 105–114). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Stainfield, J., Fisher, P., Ford, B., & Solem, M. (2000). International virtual field trips: A new direction? Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 24(2), 255–262. https://doi.org/10.1080/713677387
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steuer, J. (1992). Defining virtual reality: Dimensions determining telepresence. Journal of Communication, 42(4), 73–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1992.tb00812.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stokes, A., & Boyle, A. P. (2009). The undergraduate geoscience fieldwork experience: Influencing factors and implications for learning. In S. J. Whitmeyer, D. W. Mogk, & E. J. Pyle (Eds.), Field geology education: Historical perspectives and modern approaches: GSA Special Paper 461 (pp. 291–312). Geological Society of America.
   Google Scholar
• Stumpf, R. J., Douglass, J., & Dorn, R. I. (2008). Learning desert geomorphology virtually versus in the field. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 32(3), 387–399. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098260802221140
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tewksbury, B. J., Reynolds, S. J., & Johnson, J. K. (2004). Using student-generated concept sketches for learning, teaching, and assessment in structural geology courses [Abstract]. Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, 36, 347.
   Google Scholar
• Tuthill, G., & Klemm, E. B. (2002). Virtual field trips: Alternatives to actual field trips. International Journal of Instructional Media, 29(4), 453.
   Google Scholar
• Van Dijk, J. (2020). The digital divide. John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• VanLehn, K. (2011). The relative effectiveness of human tutoring, intelligent tutoring systems, and other tutoring systems. Educational Psychologist, 46(4), 197–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2011.611369
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitelock, D., & Jelfs, A. (2005). Would you rather collect data in the rain or attend a virtual field trip? Findings from a series of virtual science field studies. International Journal of Continuing Engineering Education and Lifelong Learning, 15(1/2), 121–131. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJCEELL.2005.006797
   Google Scholar
• Whitmeyer, S. J., Mogk, D. W., & Pyle, E. J. (2009). An introduction to historical perspectives on and modern approaches to field geology education. In S. J. Whitmeyer, D. W. Mogk, & E. J. Pyle (Eds.), Field geology education: Historical perspectives and modern approaches: GSA Special Paper 461 (pp. vii–vix). Geological Society of America.
   Google Scholar
• Zhao, J., LaFemina, P., Carr, J., Sajjadi, P., Wallgrun, J. O., & Klippel, A. (2020). Learning in the field: Comparison of desktop, immersive virtual reality, and actual field trips for place-based stem education [Paper presentation]. 2020 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR), 893–902. https://doi.org/10.1109/VR46266.2020.00012.
   Google Scholar