Orphanhood vulnerabilities for violence and HIV by education, sex, and orphan type among 18-24-year-old youth: findings from the 2018 Lesotho violence against children and youth survey

References

• Behrman, J. A., Peterman, A., & Palermo, T. (2017). Does keeping adolescent girls in school protect against sexual violence? Quasi-experimental evidence from East and Southern Africa. Journal of Adolescent Health, 60(2), 184–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.09.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beyene, A. S., Chojenta, C., Roba, H. S., Melka, A. S., & Loxton, D. (2019). Gender-based violence among female youths in educational institutions of Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Systematic Reviews, 8(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-019-0969-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Birdthistle, I., Floyd, S., Nyagadza, A., Mudziwapasi, N., Gregson, S., & Glynn, J. R. (2009). Is education the link between orphanhood and HIV/HSV-2 risk among female adolescents in urban Zimbabwe? Social Science & Medicine, 68(10), 1810–1818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.02.035
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birdthistle, I. J., Floyd, S., Machingura, A., Mudziwapasi, N., Gregson, S., & Glynn, J. R. (2008). From affected to infected? Orphanhood and HIV risk among female adolescents in urban Zimbabwe. AIDS, 22(6), 759–766. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0b013e3282f4cac7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birdthistle, I. J., Floyd, S., Mwanasa, S., Nyagadza, A., Gwiza, E., & Glynn, J. R. (2011). Child sexual abuse and links to HIV and orphanhood in urban Zimbabwe. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 65(12), 1075–1082. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2009.094359
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Case, A., Paxson, C., & Ableidinger, J. (2004). Orphans in Africa: Parental death, poverty, and school enrollment. Demography, 41(3), 483–508. https://doi.org/10.1353/dem.2004.0019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chae, S. (2013). Timing of orphanhood, early sexual debut, and early marriage in four Sub-Saharan African countries. Studies in Family Planning, 44(2), 123–146. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00349.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cho, H., Deming, M. E., Park, J.-H., & Iritani, B. (2019). Gender differences in HIV/HSV-2: Evidence from a school support randomized controlled trial among orphaned adolescents in Kenya. AIDS and Behavior, 23(9), 2396–2406. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-019-02518-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cluver, L., & Gardner, F. (2007). Risk and protective factors for psychological well-being of children orphaned by AIDS in Cape Town: A qualitative study of children and caregivers’ perspectives. Aids Care-Psychological & Socio-Medical Aspects of Aids/hiv, 19(3), 318–325. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540120600986578
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cluver, L., Orkin, M., Boyes, M., Gardner, F., & Meinck, F. (2011). Transactional sex amongst AIDS-orphaned and AIDS-affected adolescents predicted by abuse and extreme poverty. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes (1999), 58(3), 336–343. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0b013e31822f0d82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cluver, L. D., Meinck, F., Steinert, J. I., Shenderovich, Y., Doubt, J., Herrero Romero, R., Lombard, C. J., Redfern, A., Ward, C. L., Tsoanyane, S., Nzima, D., Sibanda, N., Wittesaele, C., De Stone, S., Boyes, M. E., Catanho, R., Lachman, J. M., Salah, N., Nocuza, M., & Gardner, F. (2018). Parenting for lifelong health: A pragmatic cluster randomised controlled trial of a non-commercialised parenting programme for adolescents and their families in South Africa. BMJ Global Health, 3(1), e000539. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2017-000539
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devries, K. M., Knight, L., Child, J. C., Mirembe, A., Nakuti, J., Jones, R., Sturgess, J., Allen, E., Kyegombe, N., Parkes, J., Walakira, E., Elbourne, D., Watts, C., & Naker, D. (2015). The good school toolkit for reducing physical violence from school staff to primary school students: A cluster-randomised controlled trial in Uganda. The Lancet Global Health, 3(7), e378–e386. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2214-109x(15)00060-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gona, P. N., Gona, C. M., Ballout, S., Rao, S. R., Kimokoti, R., Mapoma, C. C., & Mokdad, A. H. (2020). Burden and changes in HIV/AIDS morbidity and mortality in Southern Africa development community countries, 1990–2017. BMC Public Health, 20(1), 867. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-08988-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray, C. L., Pence, B. W., Ostermann, J., Whetten, R. A., O’Donnell, K., Thielman, N. M., & Whetten, K. (2015). Gender (in) differences in prevalence and incidence of traumatic experiences among orphaned and separated children living in five low- and middle-income countries. Global Mental Health, 2, e3. https://doi.org/10.1017/gmh.2015.1
   Google Scholar
• Gray, C. L., Whetten, K., Messer, L. C., Whetten, R. A., Ostermann, J., O’Donnell, K., Thielman, N. M., & Pence, B. W. (2016). Potentially traumatic experiences and sexual health among orphaned and separated adolescents in five low- and middle-income countries. Aids Care-Psychological & Socio-Medical Aspects of Aids/hiv, 28(7), 857–865. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2016.1147013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gregson, S., Nyamukapa, C. A., Garnett, G. P., Wambe, M., Lewis, J. J. C., Mason, P. R., Chandiwana, S. K., & Anderson, R. M. (2005). HIV infection and reproductive health in teenage women orphaned and made vulnerable by AIDS in Zimbabwe. Aids Care-Psychological & Socio-Medical Aspects of Aids/hiv, 17(7), 785–794. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540120500258029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hallfors, D., Cho, H., Rusakaniko, S., Iritani, B., Mapfumo, J., & Halpern, C. (2011). Supporting adolescent orphan girls to stay in school as HIV risk prevention: Evidence from a randomized controlled trial in Zimbabwe. American Journal of Public Health, 101(6), 1082–1088. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2010.300042
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haney, E., & Singh, K. (2012). The importance of HIV prevention messaging for orphaned youth in Zimbabwe. Aids Care-Psychological & Socio-Medical Aspects of Aids/hiv, 24(7), 877–885. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2011.648162
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hillis, S. D., Unwin, H. J. T., Chen, Y., Cluver, L., Sherr, L., Goldman, P. S., Ratmann, O., Donnelly, C. A., Bhatt, S., Villaveces, A., Butchart, A., Bachman, G., Rawlings, L., Green, P., Nelson, C. A., & Flaxman, S. (2021). Global minimum estimates of children affected by COVID-19-associated orphanhood and deaths of caregivers: A modelling study. The Lancet, 398(10298), 391–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01253-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation. (2017). Global burden of diseases study. Retrieved June 30, 2022, from https://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbd-compare
   Google Scholar
• Joint United Nations Programme on HIV and AIDS. (2021). UNAIDS data 2021. Retrieved August 10, 2022, from https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/documents/2021/2021_unaids_data
   Google Scholar
• Kang, M., Dunbar, M., Laver, S., & Padian, N. (2008). Maternal versus paternal orphans and HIV/STI risk among adolescent girls in Zimbabwe. Aids Care-Psychological & Socio-Medical Aspects of Aids/hiv, 20(2), 214–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540120701534715
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kidman, R., & Anglewicz, P. (2016). Are adolescent orphans more likely to be HIV-positive? A pooled data analyses across 19 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 70(8), 791. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2015-206744
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kidman, R., & Anglewicz, P. (2017). Why are orphaned adolescents more likely to be HIV positive? Distinguishing between maternal and sexual HIV transmission using 17 nationally representative data sets in Africa. Journal of Adolescent Health, 61(1), 99–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.01.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kidman, R., & Palermo, T. (2016). The relationship between parental presence and child sexual violence: Evidence from thirteen countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Child Abuse & Neglect, 51, 172–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.10.018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lesotho National AIDS Commission, & Lesotho Ministry of Health and Social Welfare. (2012). Lesotho Global AIDS Response Country Progress Report. https://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/country/documents/file,68395,fr.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Miller, K. S., Lasswell, S. M., Riley, D. B., & Poulsen, M. N. (2013). Families matter! Presexual risk prevention intervention. American Journal of Public Health, 103(11), e16–20. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2013.301417
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (MOHSW) Lesotho and ICF Macro. (2010). Lesotho Demographic and Health Survey 2009. https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR241/FR241.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Ministry of Social Development of Lesotho, ICAP, & the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020). Violence Against Children and Youth Survey, 2018. Retrieved September 2, 2022, from https://icap.columbia.edu/wp-content/uploads/Lesotho-2018-VACS-Report_final-web.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Mishra, V., Arnold, F., Otieno, F., Cross, A., & Hong, R. (2007). Education and nutritional status of orphans and children of HIV–infected parents in Kenya. AIDS Education and Prevention, 19(5), 383–395. https://doi.org/10.1521/aeap.2007.19.5.383
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morantz, G., Cole, D., Vreeman, R., Ayaya, S., Ayuku, D., & Braitstein, P. (2013). Child abuse and neglect among orphaned children and youth living in extended families in sub-Saharan Africa: What have we learned from qualitative inquiry? Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies, 8(4), 338–352. https://doi.org/10.1080/17450128.2013.764476
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nabaggala, M. S., Reddy, T., & Manda, S. (2021). Effects of rural–urban residence and education on intimate partner violence among women in Sub-Saharan Africa: A meta-analysis of health survey data. BMC Women’s Health, 21(1), 149. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-021-01286-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguyen, K. H., Kress, H., Villaveces, A., & Massetti, G. M. (2019). Sampling design and methodology of the Violence Against Children and Youth Surveys. Injury Prevention: Journal of the International Society for Child and Adolescent Injury Prevention, 25(4), 321–327. https://doi.org/10.1136/injuryprev-2018-042916
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nichols, J., Embleton, L., Mwangi, A., Morantz, G., Vreeman, R., Ayaya, S., Ayuku, D., & Braitstein, P. (2014). Physical and sexual abuse in orphaned compared to non-orphaned children in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(2), 304–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.09.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olanrewaju, A. D., Jeffery, C., Crossland, N., Valadez, J. J., & van Wouwe, J. (2015). Access to education for orphans and vulnerable children in Uganda: A multi-district, cross-sectional study using lot quality assurance sampling from 2011 to 2013. PloS One, 10(7), e0132905. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0132905
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oleke, C., Blystad, A., Moland, K. M., Rekdal, O. B., & Heggenhougen, K. (2006). The varying vulnerability of African Orphans: The case of the Langi, northern Uganda. Childhood, 13(2), 267–284. https://doi.org/10.1177/0907568206062943
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Operario, D., Pettifor, A., Cluver, L., MacPhail, C., & Rees, H. (2007). Prevalence of parental death among young people in South Africa and risk for HIV infection. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 44(1), 93–98. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.qai.0000243126.75153.3c
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Operario, D., Underhill, K., Chuong, C., & Cluver, L. (2011). HIV infection and sexual risk behaviour among youth who have experienced orphanhood: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 14(1), 25. https://doi.org/10.1186/1758-2652-14-25
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pascoe, S. J. S., Langhaug, L. F., Durawo, J., Woelk, G., Ferrand, R., Jaffar, S., Hayes, R., & Cowan, F. M. (2010). Increased risk of HIV-infection among school-attending orphans in rural Zimbabwe. Aids Care-Psychological & Socio-Medical Aspects of Aids/hiv, 22(2), 206–220. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540120903111528
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reynolds, A. J., Temple, J. A., Ou, S. R., Arteaga, I. A., & White, B. A. (2011). School-based early childhood education and age-28 well-being: Effects by timing, dosage, and subgroups. Science: Advanced Materials and Devices, 333(6040), 360–364. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1203618
   Google Scholar
• Saul, J., Bachman, G., Allen, S., Toiv, N. F., Cooney, C., Beamon, T., & Bekker, L.-G. (2018). The DREAMS core package of interventions: A comprehensive approach to preventing HIV among adolescent girls and young women. PloS One, 13(12), e0208167. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0208167
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherr, L., Croome, N., Clucas, C., & Brown, E. (2014). Differential effects of single and double parental death on child emotional functioning and daily life in South Africa. Child Welfare, 93(1), 149–172. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48623424
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherr, L., Mueller, J., & Varrall, R. (2009). Evidence-based gender findings for children affected by HIV and AIDS – a systematic overview. Aids Care-Psychological & Socio-Medical Aspects of Aids/hiv, 21(sup1), 83–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540120902923105
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swahn, M. H., Culbreth, R., Salazar, L. F., Kasirye, R., & Seeley, J. (2016). Prevalence of HIV and associated risks of sex work among youth in the slums of Kampala. AIDS Research and Treatment, 2016, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/5360180
   Google Scholar
• Thurman, T. R., Brown, L., Richter, L., Maharaj, P., & Magnani, R. (2006). Sexual risk behavior among South African adolescents: Is orphan status a factor? AIDS and Behavior, 10(6), 627–635. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-006-9104-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Unwin, H. J. T., Hillis, S., Cluver, L., Flaxman, S., Goldman, P. S., Butchart, A., Bachman, G., Rawlings, L., Donnelly, C. A., Ratmann, O., Green, P., Nelson, C. A., Blenkinsop, A., Bhatt, S., Desmond, C., Villaveces, A., & Sherr, L. (2022). Global, regional, and national minimum estimates of children affected by COVID-19-associated orphanhood and caregiver death, by age and family circumstance up to Oct 31, 2021: An updated modelling study. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 6(4), 249–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(22)00005-0
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ventevogel, P., & Spiegel, P. (2015). Psychological treatments for orphans and vulnerable children affected by traumatic events and chronic adversity in sub-Saharan Africa. Jama, 314(5), 511–512. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.8383
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whetten, R., Messer, L., Ostermann, J., Whetten, K., Pence, B. W., Buckner, M., Thielman, N., O’Donnell, K., & The Positive Outcomes for Orphans Research, T. (2011). Child work and labour among orphaned and abandoned children in five low and middle income countries. BMC International Health and Human Rights, 11(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-698X-11-1
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• WHO. (2016). INSPIRE: Seven strategies for ending violnece against children. Retrieved August 10, 2022, from https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/inspire-seven-strategies-for-ending-violence-against-children
   Google Scholar
• WHO. (2023). WHO Guidelines on Parenting Interventions to Prevent Maltreatment and Enhance Parent–Child Relationships with Children Aged 0–17 Years. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240065505
   Google Scholar
• Wood, K., Chase, E., & Aggleton, P. (2006). ‘Telling the truth is the best thing’: Teenage orphans’ experiences of parental AIDS-related illness and bereavement in Zimbabwe. Social Science & Medicine, 63(7), 1923–1933. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.04.027
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng, X., Fang, X., Ugboke, H., & Fry, D. A. (2019). Violence against children and human capital in South Africa. Journal of Family Violence, 34(2), 139–151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-018-0008-y
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar