Spanish language proficiency in dual language and English as a second language models: the impact of model, time, teacher, and student on Spanish language development

References

• Arteagoitia, I., and S. J. Yen. 2020. “Equity in Representing Literacy Growth in Dual Language Bilingual Education for Emerging Bilingual Students.” TESOL Quarterly 54 (3): 719–742. doi:10.1002/tesq.588.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baquedano-López, P., R. A. Alexander, and S. J. Hernandez. 2013. “Equity Issues in Parental and Community Involvement in Schools: What Teacher Educators Need to Know.” Review of Educational Research 37 (1): 149–182. doi:10.3102/0091732X12459718.
   Google Scholar
• Benjamini, Y., A. M. Krieger, and D. Yekutieli. 2006. “Adaptive Linear Step-up Procedures That Control the False Discovery Rate.” Biometrika 93: 491–507. doi:10.1093/biomet/93.3.491.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernstein, K. A., A. Alvarez, S. Chaparro, and K. I. Henderson. 2021. ““We live in the Age of Choice”: School Administrators, School Choice Policies, and the Shaping of Dual Language Bilingual Education.” Language Policy 20 (3): 383–412. doi:10.1007/s10993-021-09578-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bertsekas, D. P. 2014. Constrained Optimization and Lagrange Multiplier Methods. New York: Academics.
   Google Scholar
• Bialystok, E., F. Craik, and G. Luk. 2012. “Bilingualism: Consequences for Mind and Brain.” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 16 (4): 240–250. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2012.03.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blazar, D. 2015. “Grade Assignments and the Teacher Pipeline: A Low-Cost Lever to Improve Student Achievement?” Educational Researcher 44 (4): 213–227. doi:10.3102/0013189X15580944.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burke, A. M., T. Morita-Mullaney, and M. Singh. 2016. “Indiana Emergent Bilingual Student Time to Reclassification: A Survival Analysis.” American Educational Research Journal 53 (5): 1310–1342. doi:10.3102/0002831216667481.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Californians Together. 2016. Seal of Biliteracy. https://sealofbiliteracy.com.
   Google Scholar
• Castañeda v. Pickard. 1981. 648 F2d989, 1006–07 (5th Cir. 1981).
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, J., J. M. Cohen, S. G. West, and L. S. Aiken. 2003. Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. 3rd ed. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Collier, V. P., and W. P. Thomas. 2004. “The Astounding Effectiveness of Dual Language for All.” NABE Journal of Research and Practice 2 (1): 1–20.
   Google Scholar
• Collier, V. P., and W. P. Thomas. 2017. “Validating the Power of Bilingual Schooling: Thirty-two Years of Large-Scale, Longitudinal Research.” Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 37: 1-15. doi:10.1017/S0267190517000034P.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook, H. G. 2013. Examining How to Establish English Proficiency Using Alternative Composite Scores in a WIDA State: A Logistic Regression Approach. Madison, WI: WIDA Consortium. https://wida.wisc.edu/sites/default/files/resource/Report-ExaminingHowToEstablishEnglishProficiencyUsingAltCompositeScores.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Cook, H. G., T. Boals, C. Wilmes, and M. Santos. 2008. Issues in the Development of Annual Measurable Achievement Objectives for WIDA Consortium States. Madison: Wisconsin Center for Educational Research.
   Google Scholar
• CTB/McGraw-Hill LLC. 2013a. LAS Links™ Español, Form B, 2nd edition. Monterey: CTB/McGraw Hill.
   Google Scholar
• CTB/McGraw-Hill LLC. 2013b. LAS Links™ Español, Form B, 2nd edition, Technical Manual. Monterey: CTB/McGraw Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Every Student Succeeds Act, Pub. L. No. Public Law 114-95. 2015. December 10.
   Google Scholar
• Freire, J. A., and M. G. Delavan. 2021. “The Fiftyfcation of Dual Language Education: One-Size-Fits-All Language Allocation’s “Equality” and “Practicality” Eclipsing a History of Equity.” Language Policy 20: 351–381. doi:10.1007/s10993-021-09579-z.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• García, O. 2009. Bilingual Education in the 21st Century: A Global Perspective. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• García, O., and L. Wei. 2009. Translanguaging: Language, Bilingualism and Education. New York: Palgrave.
   Google Scholar
• Garrett Delavan, M, Juan A. Freire, and T. Morita-Mullaney. 2022. “Conscripted into thinking of scarce, selective, privatized, and precarious seats in dual language bilingual education: the choice discourse of mercenary exclusivity.” Current Issues in Language Planning 26: 1–27. doi:10.1080/14664208.2022.2077032.
   Google Scholar
• Genesee, F., K. Lindholm-Leary, W. M. Saunders, and D. Christian. 2006. Educating English Language Learning: A Synthesis of Research Evidence. New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Goldenberg, C. 2008. Teaching English Language Learners: What the Research Does-and Does Not-Say. Vol. 32, 8–23. American Educator.
   Google Scholar
• Goldstein, H. 2011. Multilevel Statistical Models. London: Edward Arnold.
   Google Scholar
• Grundy, J. G., and K. Timmer. 2017. “Bilingualism and Working Memory Capacity: A Comprehensive Meta-Analysis.” Second Language Research 33 (3): 325–340. doi:10.1177/0267658316678286.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haas, E., M. Huang, L. Tran, and A. Yu. 2016. The Achievement Progress of English Learner Students in Nevada. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Regional Educational Lab at WestEd.
   Google Scholar
• Hamman-Ortiz, L. 2019. “Troubling the “two” in Two-way Bilingual Education.” Bilingual Research Journal 42 (4): 387–407. doi:10.1080/15235882.2019.1686441.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris, D. N., and T. R. Sass. 2011. “Teacher Training, Teacher Quality and Student Achievement.” Journal of Public Economics 95 (7): 798–812. doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2010.11.009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heineke, A. J., K. J. Davin, and A. Bedford. 2018. “The Seal of Biliteracy: Considering Equity and Access for English Learners.” Education Policy Analysis Archives 26 (99): 1–8. doi:10.14507/epaa.26.3825.
   Google Scholar
• Henderson, K., and D. K. Palmer. 2019. ““I wonder why they don’t do the two-way”: Disrupting the One-way/Two-way Dichotomy, re-Envisioning the Possibilities of Dual Language Bilingual Education.” NABE Journal of Research and Practice 9 (1): 47–59. doi:10.1080/26390043.2019.1589292.
   Google Scholar
• Hox, J. J., M. Moerbeek, and R. Van de Schoot. 2017. Multilevel Analysis: Techniques and Applications. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Indiana Department of Education. 2020. DOE Language Minority Data Layout. https://www.doe.in.gov/sites/default/files/elme/lm-layout-2020-080819.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Joreskog, K., and D. Sorbom. 2018. LISREL 10.1. Scientific Software International.
   Google Scholar
• Kennedy, P. 2008. Guide to Econometrics. New York: Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• King, G., C. Lucas, and R. Nielsen. 2015. “The Balance-Sample Size Frontier in Matching Methods for Causal Inference.” PS: Political Science and Politics 42: 11–22. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.pan.a004868.
   Google Scholar
• King, G., R. Nielsen, C. Coberley, J. E. Pope, and A. Wells. 2011. Comparative Effectiveness of Matching Methods for Causal Inference. Working paper. http://j.mp/1BQDnUn.
   Google Scholar
• Kini, T., and A. Podolsky. 2016. Does Teaching Experience Increase Teacher Effectiveness?: A Review of the Research. Washington, DC: Learning Policy Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Kukla-Acevedo, S. 2009. “Do Teacher Characteristics Matter? New Results on the Effects of Teacher Preparation on Student Achievement.” Economics of Education Review 28: 49–57. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2007.10.007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindholm-Leary, K., and N. Block. 2010. “Achievement in Predominantly Low SES/Hispanic Dual Language Schools.” International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 13 (1): 43–60. doi:10.1080/13670050902777546.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morita-Mullaney, T., J. Renn, and M. Chiu. 2020a. “Contesting Math as the Universal Language: A Longitudinal Study of Dual Language Bilingual Education Language Allocation.” International Multilingual Research Journal 15 (1): 43–60. doi:10.1080/19313152.2020.1753930.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morita-Mullaney, T., J. Renn, and M. Chiu. 2020b. “Obscuring Equity in Dual Language Bilingual Education: A Longitudinal Study of Emergent Bilingual Achievement, School Course Placements and Grades.” TESOL Quarterly 54 (3): 685–718. doi:10.1080/19313152.2020.1753930.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• No Child Left Behind, Pub.L. 107–110, 115 Stat. 1425. 2001.
   Google Scholar
• Palmer, D., C. Cervantes-Soon, L. Dorner, and D. Heiman. 2019. “Bilingualism, Biliteracy, Biculturalism and Critical Consciousness for all: Proposing a Fourth Fundamental Principle for two-way Dual Language Education.” Theory Into Practice 58 (2): 121–133. doi:10.1080/00405841.2019.1569376.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peugh, J. L., and C. K. Enders. 2004. “Missing Data in Educational Research: A Review of Reporting Practices and Suggestions for Improvement.” Review of Educational Research 74: 525–556. doi:10.3102/00346543074004525.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Potowski, K. 2007. “Characteristics of the Spanish Grammar and Sociolinguistic Proficiency of Dual Immersion Graduates.” Spanish in Context 4 (2): 187–216. doi:10.1075/sic.4.2.04pot.
   Google Scholar
• Potowski, K. 2019. When Should Teachers Be Cautious About Translanguaging? In AERA Bilingual Education Research Special Interest Group (SIG) January Newsletter, Translanguaging in DL Education: Scholars’ Commentaries.
   Google Scholar
• Potowski, K., and M. Carreira. 2004. “Teacher Development and National Standards for Spanish as a Heritage Language.” Foreign Language Annals 37 (3): 427–437. doi:10.1111/j.1944-9720.2004.tb02700.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sánchez, M. T., O. García, and C. Solorza. 2018. “Reframing Language Allocation Policy in Dual Language Bilingual Education.” Bilingual Research Journal 41 (1): 37–51. doi:10.1080/15235882.2017.1405098.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soltero, S. W. 2016. Dual Language Education: Program Design and Implementation. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
   Google Scholar
• Steele, J., R. O. Slater, G. Zammaro, T. Miller, J. Li, L. Burkhauser, and M. Bacon. 2017. “Effects of Dual-Language Immersion Programs on Student Achievement: Evidence from Lottery Data.” American Educational Research Journal 54 (1S): 82S–306S. doi:10.3102/0002831216634463.
   Google Scholar
• Stuart, E. A. 2010. “Matching Methods for Causal Inference: A Review and a Look Forward.” Statistical Science 25: 1–21. doi:10.1214/09-STS313.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas, W. P., and V. P. Collier. 1997. School Effectiveness for Language Minority Students. National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.
   Google Scholar
• Thomas, W. P., and V. P. Collier. 2002. A National Study of School Effectiveness for Language Minority Students’ Long-Term Academic Achievement. Santa Cruz: Center for Research on Education Diversity and Excellence.
   Google Scholar
• Thomas, W. P., and V. P. Collier. 2012. Dual Language Education For a Transformed World. Albuquerque: Dual Language Education of New Mexico – Fuente Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tran, N A, S Behseta, M Ellis, A Martinez-Cruz, and J Contreras. 2015. “The Effects of Spanish English Dual Language Immersion on Student Achievement in Science and Mathematics.” eJournal of Educational Policy 57–77.
   Google Scholar
• Umansky, I., and S. Reardon. 2014. “Bilingual, Dual Immersion, and English Immersion Classrooms in Reclassification Patterns Among Latino English Learner Students.” American Educational Research Journal 51 (5): 879–912. doi:10.3102/0002831214545110.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valdés, G. 1997. “Dual-Language Immersion Programs: A Cautionary Note Concerning the Education of Language-Minority Students.” Harvard Educational Review 67 (3): 391–430. doi:10.17763/haer.67.3.n5q175qp86120948.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valdés, G. 2021. ““Verde is Not the Word for Green in Spanish”: The Problematic Arrogance of Monolingual, Powerful Parents.” Language Policy 20: 517–523. doi:10.1007/S10993-021-09598-W.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valdez, V., G. Delavan, and J. A. Freire. 2014. “The Marketing of Dual Language Education Policy in Utah Print Media.” Educational Policy 30 (6): 849–883. doi:10.1177/0895904814556750.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valentino, R. A., and S. Reardon. 2015. “Effectiveness of Four Instructional Programs Designed to Serve English Learners: Variation by Ethnicity and Initial English Proficiency.” Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 47 (4): 612–637. doi:10.3102/0162373715573310.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webb, J., and B. Miller. 2000. Teaching Heritage Language Learners: Voices from the Classroom. Yonkers: American Council for the Teaching of Foreign Languages.
   Google Scholar
• Wright, W. E. 2019. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners: Research, Theory, Policy, and Practice. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Caslon.
   Google Scholar
• Wright, W. E., T. Morita-Mullaney, W. Choi, and W. H. Kim. in press. “Building Bilingual Teachers’ Translanguaging Repertoires in a New Immigrant Destination State.” In Developing Translanguaging Repertoires in Critical Teacher Education, edited by Z. Tian, and T. Cimasko. New York: De Gruyter Mouton.
   Google Scholar