Lichen sclerosus in women: a review

References

• Meffert JJ, Davis BM, Grimwood RE. Lichen sclerosus. J Am Acad Dermatol 1995;32:393–416
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powell JJ, Wojnarowska F. Lichen sclerosus. Lancet 1999;353:1777–83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynch PJ, Moyal-Barracco M, Moyal-Barrocco M, Bogliatto F, Micheletti L, Scurry J. 2006 ISSVD classification of vulvar dermatoses: pathologic subsets and their clinical correlates. J Reprod Med 2007;52:3–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vieira-Baptista P, Lima-Silva J, Cavaco-Gomes J, Beires J, Martinez-de-Oliveira J. What differentiates symptomatic from asymptomatic women with lichen sclerosus? Gynecol Obstet Invest 2015;79:263–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallace HJ. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. Trans St Johns Hosp Dermatol Soc 1971;57:9–30
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Friedrich EG. Lichen sclerosus. J Reprod Med 1976;17:147–54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein AT, Marinoff SC, Christopher K, Srodon M. Prevalence of vulvar lichen sclerosus in a general gynecology practice. J Reprod Med 2005;50:477–80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leibovitz A, Kaplun V, Saposhnicov N, Habot B. Vulvovaginal examinations in elderly nursing home women residents. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2000;31:1–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bleeker MC, Visser PJ, Overbeek LI, van Beurden M, Berkhof J. Lichen sclerosus: incidence and risk of vulvar squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2016;25:1224–30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powell J, Wojnarowska F. Childhood vulvar lichen sclerosus: an increasingly common problem. J Am Acad Dermatol 2001;44:803–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neill SM, Tatnall FM, Cox NH. Guidelines for the management of lichen sclerosus. Br J Dermatol 2002;147:640–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Micheletti L, Preti M, Radici G, et al. Vulvar lichen sclerosus and neoplastic transformation: a retrospective study of 976 cases. J Low Genit Tract Dis 2016;20:180–3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee A, Bradford J, Fischer G. Long-term Management of adult vulvar lichen sclerosus: a prospective cohort study of 507 women. JAMA Dermatol 2015;151:1061–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maclean AB, Chan M, Ramos K. Why is there a geographic variation in lichen sclerosus and vulval cancer? J Low Genit Tract Dis 2011;15:S21
   Google Scholar
• Eisendle K. Possible role of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato infection in lichen sclerosus. Arch Dermatol 2008;144:591–8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Powell J, Strauss S, Gray J, Wojnarowska F. Genital carriage of human papilloma virus (HPV) DNA in prepubertal girls with and without vulval disease. Pediatr Dermatol 2003;20:191–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bunker C, Shim T. Male genital lichen sclerosus. Indian J Dermatol 2015;60:111–17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aidé S, Lattario FR, Almeida G, do Val IC, da Costa Carvalho M. Epstein-Barr virus and human papillomavirus infection in vulvar lichen sclerosus. J Low Genit Tract Dis 2010;14:319–22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oyama N, Chan I, Neill SM, et al. Development of antigen-specific ELISA for circulating autoantibodies to extracellular matrix protein 1 in lichen sclerosus. J Clin Invest 2004;113:1550–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howard A, Dean D, Cooper S, Kirtshig G, Wojnarowska F. Circulating basement membrane zone antibodies are found in lichen sclerosus of the vulva. Australas J Dermatol 2004;45:12–15
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Strittmatter HJ, Hengge UR, Blecken SR. Calcineurin antagonists in vulvar lichen sclerosus. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2006;274:266–70
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kreuter A, Kryvosheyeva Y, Terras S, et al. Association of autoimmune diseases with lichen sclerosus in 532 male and female patients. Acta Derm Venereol 2013;93:238–41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyrick Thomas RH, Ridley CM, McGibbon DH, Black MM. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus and autoimmunity-a study of 350 women. Br J Dermatol 1988;118:41–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper SM, Ali I, Baldo M, Wojnarowska F. The association of lichen sclerosus and erosive lichen planus of the vulva with autoimmune disease: a case-control study. Arch Dermatol 2008;144:1432–5
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Harrington CI, Dunsmore IR. An investigation into the incidence of auto-immune disorders in patients with lichen sclerosus and atrophicus. Br J Dermatol 1981;104:563–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powell J, Wojnarowska F, Winsey S, Marren P, Welsh K. Lichen sclerosus premenarche: autoimmunity and immunogenetics. Br J Dermatol 2000;142:481–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birenbaum DL, Young RC. High prevalence of thyroid disease in patients with lichen sclerosus. J Reprod Med 2007;52:28–30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas RH, Ridley CM, McGibbon DH, Black MM. Anogenital lichen sclerosus in women. J R Soc Med 1996;89:694–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eberz B, Berghold A, Regauer S. High prevalence of concomitant anogenital lichen sclerosus and extragenital psoriasis in adult women. Obstet Gynecol 2008;111:1143–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clay FE, Cork MJ, Tarlow JK, et al. Interleukin 1 receptor antagonist gene polymorphism association with lichen sclerosus. Hum Genet 1994;94:407–10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Regauer S. Immune dysregulation in lichen sclerosus. Eur J Cell Biol 2005;84:273–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tchórzewski H, Rotsztejn H, Banasik M, Lewkowicz P, Głowacka E. The involvement of immunoregulatory T cells in the pathogenesis of lichen sclerosus. Med Sci Monit 2005;11:CR39–43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Purcell KG, Spencer LV, Simpson PM, Helman SW, Oldfather JW, Fowler JF. HLA antigens in lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. Arch Dermatol 1990;126:1043–5
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sentürk N, Aydin F, Birinci A, et al. Coexistence of HLA-B*08 and HLA-B*18 in four siblings with Lichen sclerosus. Dermatology 2004;208:64–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao X-H, Barnardo MC, Winsey S, et al. The association between HLA DR, DQ antigens, and vulval lichen sclerosus in the UK: HLA DRB112 and its associated DRB112/DQB10301/04/09/010 haplotype confers susceptibility to vulval lichen sclerosus, and HLA DRB10301/04 and its associated DRB10301/04/DQB10201/02/03 haplotype protects from vulval lichen sclerosus. J Invest Dermatol 2005;125:895–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haidopoulos D, Bakolas G, Michala L. Turner syndrome: don't forget the vulva. Endocrinol Diabetes Metab Case Reports 2016;2016:160016
   Google Scholar
• Potter JE, Moore KA. Lichen sclerosus in a breast cancer survivor on an aromatase inhibitor: a case report. J Gen Intern Med 2013;28:592–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vieira-Baptista P. Lichen sclerosus in breast cancer survivor. J Gen Intern Med 2013;28:344
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohlberger PD, Joura EA, Bancher D, Gitsch G, Breitenecker G, Kieback DG. Evidence of androgen receptor expression in lichen sclerosus: an immunohistochemical study. J Soc Gynecol Investig 1998;5:331–3
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Carlson JA, Murphy M. Androgen receptors and lichen sclerosus. J Am Acad Dermatol 2000;43:559–60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pranteda G, Muscianese M, Grimaldi M, et al. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus induced by carbamazepine: a case report. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 2013;26:791–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skupsky H, Abuav R, High W, Pass C, Goldenberg G. Development of lichen sclerosus et atrophicus while receiving a therapeutic dose of imatinib mesylate for chronic myelogenous leukemia. J Cutan Pathol 2010;37:877–80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baldo M, Ali I, Wojnarowska F. The contribution of drugs to lichen sclerosus. Clin Exp Dermatol 2014;39:234
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borghi A, Corazza M, Minghetti S, Toni G, Virgili A. Avocado and soybean extracts as active principles in the treatment of mild-to-moderate vulvar lichen sclerosus: results of efficacy and tolerability. J Eur Acad Dermatology Venereol 2015;29:1225–30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf B, Horn L-C, Höckel M. Anogenital lichen sclerosus: change of tissue position as pathogenetic factor. Gynecol Oncol Rep 2017;20:73–4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zendell K, Edwards L. Lichen sclerosus with vaginal involvement: report of 2 cases and review of the literature. JAMA Dermatol 2013;149:1199–202
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis FM. Vulval symptoms after the menopause: not all atrophy! Post Reprod Heal 2015;2:146–50
   Google Scholar
• Vieira-Baptista P, Marchitelli C, Haefner HK, Donders G, Pérez-López F. Deconstructing the genitourinary syndrome of menopause. Int Urogynecol J 2017;28:675–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards L, Lynch PJ, Genital Dermatology Atlas. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2011
   Google Scholar
• Lynch PJ, Moyal-Barracco M, Scurry J, Stockdale C. 2011 ISSVD terminology and classification of vulvar dermatological disorders: an approach to clinical diagnosis. J Low Genit Tract Dis 2012;16:339–44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pérez-López FR, Ceausu I, Depypere H, et al. EMAS clinical guide: vulvar lichen sclerosus in peri and postmenopausal women. Maturitas 2013;74:279–82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirtschig G, Becker K, Günthert A, et al. Evidence-based (S3) Guideline on (anogenital) lichen sclerosus. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2015;29:e1–e43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards SK, Bates CM, Lewis F, Sethi G, Grover D. 2014 UK national guideline on the management of vulval conditions. Int J STD AIDS 2015;26:611–24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirtschig G. Lichen sclerosus-presentation, diagnosis and management. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2016;113:337–43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neill SM, Lewis FM, Tatnall FM, Cox NH. British Association of Dermatologists' guidelines for the management of lichen sclerosus 2010. Br J Dermatol 2010;163:672–82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bercaw-Pratt JL, Boardman LA, Simms-Cendan JS. North American Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology. Clinical recommendation: pediatric lichen sclerosus. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 2014;27:111–16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niamh L, Naveen S, Hazel B. Diagnosis of vulval inflammatory dermatoses: a pathological study with clinical correlation. Int J Gynecol Pathol 2009;28:554–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Regauer S, Liegl B, Reich O. Early vulvar lichen sclerosus: a histopathological challenge. Histopathology 2005;47:340–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haefner HK, Aldrich NZ, Dalton VK, et al. The impact of vulvar lichen sclerosus on sexual dysfunction. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2014;23:765–70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van De Nieuwenhof HP, Meeuwis KAP, Nieboer TE, Vergeer MCM, Massuger LFAG, De Hullu JA. The effect of vulvar lichen sclerosus on quality of life and sexual functioning. J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol 2010;31:279–84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halonen P, Jakobsson M, Heikinheimo O, Riska A, Gissler M, Pukkala E. Lichen sclerosus and risk of cancer. Int J Cancer 2017;140:1998–2002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalziel KL. Effect of lichen sclerosus on sexual function and parturition. J Reprod Med 1995;40:351–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flynn AN, King M, Rieff M, Krapf J, Goldstein AT. Patient satisfaction of surgical treatment of clitoral phimosis and labial adhesions caused by lichen sclerosus. Sex Med 2015;3:251–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burrows LJ, Creasey A, Goldstein AT. The treatment of vulvar lichen sclerosus and female sexual dysfunction. J Sex Med 2011;8:219–22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brauer M, van Lunsen RHW, Laan ETM, Burger MPM. A qualitative study on experiences after vulvar surgery in women with lichen sclerosus and sexual pain. J Sex Med 2016;13:1080–90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein AT, Burrows LJ. Surgical treatment of clitoral phimosis caused by lichen sclerosus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007;196:126.e1–e4
   Google Scholar
• Carlson JA, Ambros R, Malfetano J, et al. Vulvar lichen sclerosus and squamous cell carcinoma: a cohort, case control, and investigational study with historical perspective; implications for chronic inflammation and sclerosis in the development of neoplasia. Hum Pathol 1998;29:932–48
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van de Nieuwenhof HP, van der Avoort IA, de Hullu JA. Review of squamous premalignant vulvar lesions. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2008;68:131–56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preti M, Scurry J, Marchitelli CE, Micheletti L. Vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2014;28:1051–62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bornstein J, Bogliatto F, Haefner HK, et al. The 2015 International Society for the Study of Vulvovaginal Disease (ISSVD) terminology of vulvar squamous intraepithelial lesions. J Low Genit Tract Dis 2016;20:11–14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van de Nieuwenhof HP, Bulten J, Hollema H, et al. Differentiated vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia is often found in lesions, previously diagnosed as lichen sclerosus, which have progressed to vulvar squamous cell carcinoma. Mod Pathol 2011;24:297–305
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• La SM, Meli MC, De Pasquale R, et al. Vulvar melanoma associated with lichen sclerosus in a child: case report and literature review. Pediatr Dermatol 2016;33:e190–94
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeAmbrosis K, Nicklin J, Yong-Gee S. Basal cell carcinoma of the vulva: a report of four cases. Australas J Dermatol 2008;49:213–15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang S-H, Chi C-C, Wong Y, Salim A, Manek S, Wojnarowska F. Genital verrucous carcinoma is associated with lichen sclerosus: a retrospective study and review of the literature. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2009;24:815–19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LeFevre C, Hoffstetter S, Meyer S, Gavard J. Management of lichen sclerosus with triamcinolone ointment: effectiveness in reduction of patient symptom scores. J Low Genit Tract Dis 2011;15:205–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper SM, Gao X-H, Powell JJ, Wojnarowska F. Does treatment of vulvar lichen sclerosus influence its prognosis?. Arch Dermatol 2004;140:702–6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Powell J, Wojnarowska F. Childhood vulvar lichen sclerosus. The course after puberty. J Reprod Med 2002;47:706–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith SD, Fischer G. Paediatric vulval lichen sclerosus. Australas J Dermatol 2009;50:243–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Renaud-Vilmer C, Cavelier-Balloy B, Porcher R, Dubertret L. Vulvar lichen sclerosus: effect of long-term topical application of a potent steroid on the course of the disease. Arch Dermatol 2004;140:709–12
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brodrick B, Belkin ZR, Goldstein AT. Influence of treatments on prognosis for vulvar lichen sclerosus: facts and controversies. Clin Dermatol 2013;31:780–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Virgili A, Minghetti S, Borghi A, Corazza M. Long-term maintenance therapy for vulvar lichen sclerosus: the results of a randomized study comparing topical vitamin E with an emollient. Eur J Dermatol 2013;23:189–94
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Val I, Almeida G. An overview of lichen sclerosus. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2005;48:808–1117
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein AT, Thaçi D, Luger T. Topical calcineurin inhibitors for the treatment of vulvar dermatoses. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2009;146:22–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drake LA, Dinehart SM, Farmer ER, et al. Guidelines of care for the use of topical glucocorticosteroids. J Am Acad Dermatol 1996;35:615–19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lagos BR, Maibach HI. Frequency of application of topical corticosteroids: an overview. Br J Dermatol 1998;139:763–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marnach ML, Torgerson RR. Vulvovaginal issues in mature women. Mayo Clin Proc 2017;92:449–54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsumoto Y, Yamamoto T, Isobe T, Kusunoki T, Tsuboi R. Successful treatment of vulvar lichen sclerosus in a child with low-concentration topical tacrolimus ointment. J Dermatol 2007;34:114–16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boms S, Gambichler T, Freitag M, Altmeyer P, Kreuter A. Pimecrolimus 1% cream for anogenital lichen sclerosus in childhood. BMC Dermatol 2004;4:14
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Funaro D, Lovett A, Leroux N, Powell J. A double-blind, randomized prospective study evaluating topical clobetasol propionate 0.05% versus topical tacrolimus 0.1% in patients with vulvar lichen sclerosus. J Am Acad Dermatol 2014;71:84–91
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson K, Ascanio NM, Kinney MA, Krowchuk DP, Jorizzo JLA. retrospective analysis of pediatric patients with lichen sclerosus treated with a standard protocol of class I topical corticosteroid and topical calcineurin inhibitor. J Dermatolog Treat 2016;27:64–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreuter A, Tigges C, Gaifullina R, Kirschke J, Altmeyer P, Gambichler T. Pulsed high-dose corticosteroids combined with low-dose methotrexate treatment in patients with refractory generalized extragenital lichen sclerosus. Arch Dermatol 2009;145:1303–8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gurumurthy M, Morah N, Gioffre G, Cruickshank ME. The surgical management of complications of vulval lichen sclerosus. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2012;162:79–82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abramov Y, Elchalal U, Abramov D, Goldfarb A, Schenker JG. Surgical treatment of vulvar lichen sclerosus: a review. Obstet Gynecol Surv 1996;51:193–9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rouzier R, Haddad B, Deyrolle C, Pelisse M, Moyal-Barracco M, Paniel B-J. Perineoplasty for the treatment of introital stenosis related to vulvar lichen sclerosus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002;186:49–52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson CM, Lane JE, Ratz JL. Successful carbon dioxide laser therapy for refractory anogenital lichen sclerosus. Dermatol Surg 2004;30:1148–51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stuart GC, Nation JG, Malliah VS, Robertson DI. Laser therapy of vulvar lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. Can J Surg 1991;34:469–70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar