The Association Between Socioeconomic Status and Cognitive Development in Children Is Partly Mediated by a Chaotic Home Atmosphere

References

• Asbury, K., & Plomin, R. (2014). G is for genes: The impact of genetics on education and achievement (pp. 197). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Bauer, P. M., Hanson, J. L., Pierson, R. K., Davidson, R. J., & Pollak, S. D. (2009). Cerebellar volume and cognitive functioning in children who experienced early deprivation. Biological Psychiatry, 66(12), 1100–1106. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.06.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beckett, C., Maughan, B., Rutter, M., Castle, J., Colvert, E., Groothues, C., … Sonuga-Barke, E. J. (2006). Do the Effects of Early Severe Deprivation on Cognition Persist Into Early Adolescence? Findings From the English and Romanian Adoptees Study. Child Development, 77(3), 696–711. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00898.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bracken, B. A. (2002). Bracken school readiness assessment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2002). Socioeconomic status and child development. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 371–399. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135233
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byford, M, Kuh, D, & Richards, M. (2011). Parenting practices and intergenerational associations in cognitive ability. International Journal of Epidemiology, 41(1), 263–272.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centre for Longitudinal Studies. (2012a). Millennium cohort study: Second survey, 2003-2005 [computer file]. (2nd ed.). London: Institute of Education.
   Google Scholar
• Centre for Longitudinal Studies. (2012b). Millennium cohort study: Third survey, 2006 [computer file]. (2nd ed.). London: Institute of Education.
   Google Scholar
• Centre for Longitudinal Studies. (2015). Millennium Cohort Study: Fourth Survey, 2008 [computer file]. (2nd ed.). London: Institute of Education.
   Google Scholar
• Chaplin Grey, J., Gatenby, R., Simmons, N., & Huang, Y. (2010). Millennium Cohort Study Sweep 4 Technical Report. In.
   Google Scholar
• Christensen, D. L., Schieve, L. A., Devine, O., & Drews-Botsch, C. (2014). Socioeconomic status, child enrichment factors, and cognitive performance among preschool-age children: Results from the follow-up of growth and development experiences study. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(7), 1789–1801. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2014.02.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connelly, R., & Platt, L. (2014). Cohort profile: UK Millennium Cohort Study (MCS). International Journal of Epidemiology, 43(6), 1719–1725. doi:10.1093/ije/dyu001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, O. S. P., Haworth, C. M. A., & Plomin, R. (2009). dramatic increase in heritability of cognitive development from early to middle childhood: An 8-year longitudinal study of 8,700 pairs of twins. Psychological Science, 20(10), 1301–1308. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02433.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis-Kean, P. E. (2005). The influence of parent education and family income on child achievement: The indirect role of parental expectations and the home environment. Journal of Family Psychology, 19(2), 294. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.19.2.294
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deary, I. J., & Batty, G. D. (2007). Cognitive epidemiology. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 61(5), 378–384. doi:10.1136/jech.2005.039206
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deary, I. J., Taylor, M. D., Hart, C. L., Wilson, V., Smith, G. D., Blane, D., & Starr, J. M. (2005). Intergenerational social mobility and mid-life status attainment: Influences of childhood intelligence, childhood social factors, and education. Intelligence, 33(5), 455–472. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2005.06.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dickerson, A., & Popli, G. K. (2016). Persistent poverty and children’s cognitive development: Evidence from the UK Millennium Cohort Study. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A (Statistics in Society), 179(2), 535–558. doi:10.1111/rssa.12128
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drolet, A. L., & Morrison, D. G. (2001). Do we really need multiple-item measures in service research? Journal of Service Research, 3(3), 196–204. doi:10.1177/109467050133001
   Google Scholar
• Elliott, C. D., Smith, P., & McCulloch, K. (1997). British ability scales II: Technical manual. NferNelson.
   Google Scholar
• Evans, G. W. (2004). The environment of childhood poverty. American Psychologist, 59(2), 77. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.59.2.77
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans, G. W., Gonnella, C., Marcynyszyn, L. A., Gentile, L., & Salpekar, N. (2005). The role of chaos in poverty and children’s socioemotional adjustment. Psychological Science, 16(7), 560–565. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01575.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finkel, D., & Pedersen, N. L. (2001). Sources of environmental influence on cognitive abilities in adulthood. In E. L. Grigorenko & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), Family environment and intellectual functioning: A life-span perspective (pp. 173–194). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Fox, J. (2010). Polycor: Polychoric and polyserial correlations. Retrieved from https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/polycor/index.html
   Google Scholar
• Guo, G., & Harris, K. M. (2000). The mechanisms mediating the effects of poverty on children’s intellectual development. Demography, 37(4), 431–447.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanscombe, K. B. (2012, February). Socioeconomic status (SES) and children’s intelligence (IQ): In a UK-representative sample SES moderates the environmental, not genetic, effect on IQ. PLoS ONE, 7(2), ArtID e30320. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0030320
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen, K. (2010). Millennium cohort study first, second. Third and fourth surveys. A Guide to the Datasets. London: Centre for Longitudinal Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Hart, S. A., Petrill, S. A., Deckard, K. D., & Thompson, L. A. (2007). SES and CHAOS as environmental mediators of cognitive ability: A longitudinal genetic analysis. Intelligence, 35(3), 233–242. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.08.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haworth, C., Wright, M., Luciano, M., Martin, N., De Geus, E., Van Beijsterveldt, C., … Davis, O. (2010). The heritability of general cognitive ability increases linearly from childhood to young adulthood. Molecular Psychiatry, 15(11), 1112–1120. doi:10.1038/mp.2009.55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iacobucci, D., Saldanha, N., & Deng, X. (2007). A meditation on mediation: Evidence that structural equations models perform better than regressions. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 17(2), 140–154. doi:10.1016/S1057-7408(07)70020-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jenkins, J. V. M., Woolley, D. P., Hooper, S. R., & De Bellis, M. D. (2014). Direct and indirect effects of brain volume, socioeconomic status and family stress on child IQ. Journal of Child and Adolescent Behavior, 1, 2.
   Google Scholar
• Krieger, N., Williams, D. R., & Moss, N. E. (1997). Measuring social class in US public health research: Concepts, methodologies, and guidelines. Annual Review of Public Health, 18(1), 341–378. doi:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.18.1.341
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linver, M. R., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Kohen, D. E. (2002). Family processes as pathways from income to young children’s development. Developmental Psychology, 38(5), 719. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.38.5.719
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lugo-Gil, J., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2008). family resources and parenting quality: Links to children’s cognitive development across the first 3 years. Child Development, 79(4), 1065–1085. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01176.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., & Heim, C. (2009). Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10(6), 434–445. doi:10.1038/nrn2639
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marioni, R. E., Davies, G., Hayward, C., Liewald, D., Kerr, S. M., Campbell, A., … Deary, I. J. (2014). Molecular genetic contributions to socioeconomic status and intelligence. Intelligence, 44, 26–32. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2014.02.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matheny, A. P., Wachs, T. D., Ludwig, J. L., & Phillips, K. (1995). Bringing order out of chaos: Psychometric characteristics of the confusion, hubbub, and order scale. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 16(3), 429–444. doi:10.1016/0193-3973(95)90028-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLoyd, V. C. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist, 53(2), 185.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mistry, R. S., Biesanz, J. C., Chien, N., Howes, C., & Benner, A. D. (2008). Socioeconomic status, parental investments, and the cognitive and behavioral outcomes of low-income children from immigrant and native households. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 23(2), 193–212. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2008.01.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moher, D., Shamseer, L., Clarke, M., Ghersi, D., Liberati, A., Petticrew, M., & Stewart, L. A. (2015). Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015 statement. Systematic Reviews, 4(1), 1.
   Google Scholar
• Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2015). mplus user’s guide. seventh edition. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
   Google Scholar
• Najman, J. M., Aird, R., Bor, W., O’Callaghan, M., Williams, G. M., & Shuttlewood, G. J. (2004). The generational transmission of socioeconomic inequalities in child cognitive development and emotional health. Social Science & Medicine, 58(6), 1147–1158. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(03)00286-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2005). Duration and developmental timing of poverty and children’s cognitive and social development from birth through third grade. Child development, 76(4), 795–810.
   Google Scholar
• Newsom, J. T. (2015). Latent state-trait models. In Longitudinal structural equation modeling: A comprehensive introduction. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Noble, K. G., Engelhardt, L. E., Brito, N. H., Mack, L. J., Nail, E. J., Angal, J., … Elliott, A. J. (2015). Socioeconomic disparities in neurocognitive development in the first two years of life. Developmental Psychobiology, 57(5), 535–551. doi:10.1002/dev.21303
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petrill, S. A., Pike, A., Price, T., & Plomin, R. (2004). Chaos in the home and socioeconomic status are associated with cognitive development in early childhood: Environmental mediators identified in a genetic design. Intelligence, 32(5), 445–460. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2004.06.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pike, A., Iervolino, A. C., Eley, T. C., Price, T. S., & Plomin, R. (2006). Environmental risk and young children’s cognitive and behavioral development. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 30(1), 55–66. doi:10.1177/0165025406062124
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plomin, R., Fulker, D. W., Corley, R., & DeFries, J. C. (1997). Nature, nurture, and cognitive development from 1 to 16 years: A parent-offspring adoption study. Psychological Science, 8(6), 442–447. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00458.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• R Core Team. (2013). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria. http://www.R-project.org/
   Google Scholar
• Rose, D., Pevalin, D. J., & O’Reilly, K. (2005). The national statistics socio-economic classification: Origins, development and use. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Retrieved from: http://www.cls.ioe.ac.uk/shared/get-file.ashx?id=1554&itemtype=document
   Google Scholar
• Rosenberg, R. (2012). Millennium Cohort Study. MCS2: Guide to derived variables. Retrieved from.
   Google Scholar
• Rosseel, Y. (2011). lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling and more Version 0.4-9 (BETA). Ghent, Belgium: Ghent University.
   Google Scholar
• Russell, G., Ryder, D., Norwich, B., & Ford, T. (2015). Behavioural difficulties that co‐occur with specific word reading difficulties: A UK population‐based cohort study. Dyslexia, 21(2), 123–141. doi:10.1002/dys.1496
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saegert, S., & Evans, G. W. (2003). Poverty, housing niches, and health in the United States. Journal of Social Issues, 59(3), 569–589. doi:10.1111/1540-4560.00078
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7(2), 147. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.7.2.147
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strenze, T. (2007). Intelligence and socioeconomic success: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal research. Intelligence, 35(5), 401–426. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.09.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomson, H., Petticrew, M., & Morrison, D. (2001). Health effects of housing improvement: Systematic review of intervention studies. BMJ, 323(7306), 187–190. doi:10.1136/bmj.323.7306.187
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vernon-Feagans, L., Garrett-Peters, P., Willoughby, M., & Mills-Koonce, R. (2012). Chaos, poverty, and parenting: predictors of early language development. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27(3), 339–351. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2011.11.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Von Stumm, S. (2012). You are what you eat? Meal type, socio-economic status and cognitive ability in childhood. Intelligence, 40(6), 576–583. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2012.08.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeung, W. J., Linver, M. R., & Brooks–Gunn, J. (2002). How money matters for young children’s development: Parental investment and family processes. Child Development, 73(6), 1861–1879. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.t01-1-00511
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar