Systemic loxoscelism induced warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia: clinical series and review

References

• Potter MF. Brown recluse spider. University of Kentucky College of Agriculture. ENTFACT-631. https://entomology.ca.uky.edu/ef631.
   Google Scholar
• Vetter RS. Arachnids submitted as suspected brown recluse spiders (Araneae: Sicariidae): Loxosceles spiders are virtually restricted to their known distributions but are perceived to exist throughout the United States. J Med Entomol. 2005;42(4):512–521. doi:10.1093/jmedent/42.4.512.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gummin DD, Mowry JB, Beuhler MC, et al. 2019 Annual Report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers’ National Poison Data System (NPDS): 37th Annual Report. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2020;58(12):1360–1541. doi:10.1080/15563650.2020.1834219.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams ST, Khare VK, Johnston GA, et al. Severe intravascular hemolysis associated with brown recluse spider envenomation. A report of two cases and review of the literature. Am J Clin Pathol. 1995;104(4):463–467. doi:10.1093/ajcp/104.4.463.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gehrie EA, Nian H, Young PP. Brown recluse spider bite mediated hemolysis: clinical features, a possible role for complement inhibitor therapy, and reduced RBC surface glycophorin A as a potential biomarker of venom exposure. PLoS One. 2013;8(9):e76558. Published 2013 Sep 27. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076558.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sannaningaiah D, Subbaiah GK, Kempaiah K. Pharmacology of spider venom toxins. Toxin Rev. 2014;33(4):206–220. doi: 10.3109/15569543.2014.954134.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schroeder FC, Taggi AE, Gronquist M, et al. NMR-spectroscopic screening of spider venom reveals sulfated nucleosides as major components for the brown recluse and related species. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008;105(38):14283–14287. doi:10.1073/pnas.0806840105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yigit N, Bayram A, Ulasoglu D, et al. Loxosceles spider bite in Turkey (Loxosceles rufescens, Sicariidae, Araneae). J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis. 2008;14(1):178–187.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forrester LJ, Barrett JT, Campbell BJ. Red blood cell lysis induced by the venom of the brown recluse spider: the role of sphingomyelinase D. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1978;187(2):355–365. doi:10.1016/0003-9861(78)90046-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Futrell JM, Morgan PN, Su SP, et al. Location of brown recluse venom attachment sites on human erythrocytes by the firritin-labeled antibody technique. Am J Pathol. 1979;95(3):675–682.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loden JK, Seger DL, Spiller HA, et al. Cutaneous-hemolytic loxoscelism following brown recluse spider envenomation: new understandings. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2020;58(12):1297–1305. doi:10.1080/15563650.2020.1739701.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eichner ER. Spider bite hemolytic anemia: positive Coombs’ test, erythrophagocytosis, and leukoerythroblastic smear. Am J Clin Pathol. 1984;81(5):683–687. doi:10.1093/ajcp/81.5.683.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lane DR, Youse JS. Coombs-positive hemolytic anemia secondary to brown recluse spider bite: a review of the literature and discussion of treatment. Cutis. 2004;74(6):341–347.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDade J, Aygun B, Ware RE. Brown recluse spider (Loxosceles reclusa) envenomation leading to acute hemolytic anemia in six adolescents. J Pediatr. 2010;156(1):155–157. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2009.07.021.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meulenbroek EM, de Haas M, Brouwer C, et al. Complement deposition in autoimmune hemolytic anemia is a footprint for difficult-to-detect IgM autoantibodies. Haematologica. 2015;100(11):1407–1414. doi:10.3324/haematol.2015.128991.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tambourgi DV, Da Silva M DS, Billington SJ, et al. Mechanism of induction of complement susceptibility of erythrocytes by spider and bacterial sphingomyelinases. Immunology. 2002;107(1):93–101. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2567.2002.01483.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coulie PG, Van Snick J. Enhancement of IgG anti-carrier responses by IgG2 anti-hapten antibodies in mice. Eur J Immunol. 1985;15(8):793–798. doi:10.1002/eji.1830150810.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stoecker WV, Wasserman GS, Calcara DA, et al. Systemic loxoscelism confirmation by bite-site skin surface: ELISA. Mo Med. 2009;106(6):425–431.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McGlasson DL, Green JA, Stoecker WV, et al. Duration of Loxosceles reclusa venom detection by ELISA from swabs. Clin Lab Sci. 2009;22(4):216–222.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• King LE, Rees RS. Spider bites and scorpion stings. Curr Ther. 1978;1978:970–973.
   Google Scholar
• Michaud ME, Gibler WB. Hemolytic anemia and hemoglobinuria due to systemic loxoscelism: report of a case. J Wilderness Med. 1991;2(1):49–54.
   Google Scholar
• Hobbs GD, Jr HR. Brown recluse spider bites: a common cause of necrotic arachnidism. Am J Emerg Med. 1989;7(3):309–312. doi:10.1016/0735-6757(89)90178-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sams HH, Dunnick CA, Smith ML Jr, et al. Necrotic arachnidism. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2001;44(4):561–576. doi:10.1067/mjd.2001.112385.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lucas S. Spiders in Brazil. Toxicon. 1988;26(9):759–772. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(88)90317-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Futrell JM. Loxoscelism. Am J Med Sci. 1992;304(4):261–267. doi:10.1097/00000441-199210000-00008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson DC, King LE Jr. Spiders and spider bites. Dermatol Clin. 1990;8(2):277–286.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cardoso JL, Wen FH, França FO, et al. Detection by enzyme immunoassay of Loxosceles gaucho venom in necrotic skin lesions caused by spider bites in Brazil. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1990;84(4):608–609. doi:10.1016/0035-9203(90)90058-m.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gendron BP. Loxosceles reclusa envenomation. Am J Emerg Med. 1990;8(1):51–54. doi:10.1016/0735-6757(90)90297-d.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lane L, McCoppin HH, Dyer J. Acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis and Coombs-positive hemolytic anemia in a child following Loxosceles reclusa envenomation. Pediatr Dermatol. 2011;28(6):685–688. doi:10.1111/j.1525-1470.2010.01302.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wasserman GS, Anderson PC. Loxoscelism and necrotic arachnidism. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 1983;21(4-5):451–472. doi:10.3109/15563658308990434.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vorse H, Seccareccio P, Woodruff K, et al. Disseminated intravascular coagulopathy following fatal brown spider bite (necrotic arachnidism). J Pediatr. 1972;80(6):1035–1037. doi:10.1016/s0022-3476(72)80023-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogan CJ, Barbaro KC, Winkel K. Loxoscelism: old obstacles, new directions. Ann Emerg Med. 2004;44(6):608–624. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2004.08.028.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sezerino UM, Zannin M, Coelho LK, et al. A clinical and epidemiological study of Loxosceles spider envenoming in Santa Catarina, Brazil. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1998;92(5):546–548. doi:10.1016/s0035-9203(98)90909-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zanella A, Barcellini W. Treatment of autoimmune hemolytic anemias. Haematologica. 2014;99(10):1547–1554. doi:10.3324/haematol.2014.114561.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson PC. Spider bites in the United States. Dermatol Clin. 1997;15(2):307–311. doi:10.1016/s0733-8635(05)70438-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hobbs GD, Anderson AR, Greene TJ, et al. Comparison of hyperbaric oxygen and dapsone therapy for loxosceles envenomation. Acad Emerg Med. 1996;3(8):758–761. doi:10.1111/j.1553-2712.1996.tb03511.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips S, Kohn M, Baker D, et al. Therapy of brown spider envenomation: a controlled trial of hyperbaric oxygen, dapsone, and cyproheptadine. Ann Emerg Med. 1995;25(3):363–368. doi:10.1016/s0196-0644(95)70296-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brodsky RA. Warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia. N Engl J Med. 2019;381(7):647–654. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp1900554.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dussadee K, Taka O, Thedsawad A, et al. Incidence and risk factors of relapses in idiopathic autoimmune hemolytic anemia. J Med Assoc Thai. 2010;93(Suppl 1):S165–S170.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Garvey B. Rituximab in the treatment of autoimmune haematological disorders. Br J Haematol. 2008;141(2):149–169. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2141.2008.07054.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dierickx D, Kentos A, Delannoy A. The role of rituximab in adults with warm antibody autoimmune hemolytic anemia. Blood. 2015;125(21):3223–3229. doi:10.1182/blood-2015-01-588392.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zecca M, Nobili B, Ramenghi U, et al. Rituximab for the treatment of refractory autoimmune hemolytic anemia in children. Blood. 2003;101(10):3857–3861. doi:10.1182/blood-2002-11-3547.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Narat S, Gandla J, Hoffbrand AV, et al. Rituximab in the treatment of refractory autoimmune cytopenias in adults. Haematologica. 2005;90(9):1273–1274.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D'Arena G, Califano C, Annunziata M, et al. Rituximab for warm-type idiopathic autoimmune hemolytic anemia: a retrospective study of 11 adult patients. Eur J Haematol. 2007;79(1):53–58. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0609.2007.00861.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barcellini W, Zaja F, Zaninoni A, et al. Low-dose rituximab in adult patients with idiopathic autoimmune hemolytic anemia: clinical efficacy and biologic studies. Blood. 2012;119(16):3691–3697. doi:10.1182/blood-2011-06-363556.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maung SW, Leahy M, O'Leary HM, et al. A multi-centre retrospective study of rituximab use in the treatment of relapsed or resistant warm autoimmune haemolytic anaemia. Br J Haematol. 2013;163(1):118–122. doi:10.1111/bjh.12486.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birgens H, Frederiksen H, Hasselbalch HC, et al. A phase III randomized trial comparing glucocorticoid monotherapy versus glucocorticoid and rituximab in patients with autoimmune haemolytic anaemia. Br J Haematol. 2013;163(3):393–399. doi:10.1111/bjh.12541.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roumier M, Loustau V, Guillaud C, et al. Characteristics and outcome of warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia in adults: New insights based on a single-center experience with 60 patients. Am J Hematol. 2014;89(9):E150–E155. doi:10.1002/ajh.23767.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bussone G, Ribeiro E, Dechartres A, et al. Efficacy and safety of rituximab in adults’ warm antibody autoimmune haemolytic anemia: retrospective analysis of 27 cases. Am J Hematol. 2009;84(3):153–157. doi:10.1002/ajh.21341.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reynaud Q, Durieu I, Dutertre M, et al. Efficacy and safety of rituximab in auto-immune hemolytic anemia: A meta-analysis of 21 studies. Autoimmun Rev. 2015;14(4):304–313. doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2014.11.014.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barcellini W, Zanella A. Rituximab therapy for autoimmune haematological diseases. Eur J Intern Med. 2011;22(3):220–229. doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2010.12.016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barcellini W, Fattizzo B, Zaninoni A, et al. Clinical heterogeneity and predictors of outcome in primary autoimmune hemolytic anemia: a GIMEMA study of 308 patients. Blood. 2014;124(19):2930–2936. doi:10.1182/blood-2014-06-583021.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao A, Kelly M, Musselman M, et al. Safety, efficacy, and immune reconstitution after rituximab therapy in pediatric patients with chronic or refractory hematologic autoimmune cytopenias. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2008;50(4):822–825. doi:10.1002/pbc.21264.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akpek G, McAneny D, Weintraub L. Comparative response to splenectomy in Coombs-positive autoimmune hemolytic anemia with or without associated disease. Am J Hematol. 1999;61(2):98–102. doi:10.1002/(sici)1096-8652(199906)61:2<98::aid-ajh4>3.0.co;2-g
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bisharat N, Omari H, Lavi I, et al. Risk of infection and death among post-splenectomy patients. J Infect. 2001;43(3):182–186. doi:10.1053/jinf.2001.0904.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davidson RN, Wall RA. Prevention and management of infections in patients without a spleen. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2001;7(12):657–660. doi:10.1046/j.1198-743x.2001.00355.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lechner K, Jäger U. How I treat autoimmune hemolytic anemias in adults. Blood. 2010;116(11):1831–1838. doi:10.1182/blood-2010-03-259325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barros MM, Blajchman MA, Bordin JO. Warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia: recent progress in understanding the immunobiology and the treatment. Transfus Med Rev. 2010;24(3):195–210. doi:10.1016/j.tmrv.2010.03.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alba P, Karim MY, Hunt BJ. Mycophenolate mofetil as a treatment for autoimmune haemolytic anaemia in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and antiphospholipid syndrome. Lupus. 2003;12(8):633–635. doi:10.1191/0961203303lu419cr.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howard J, Hoffbrand AV, Prentice HG, et al. Mycophenolate mofetil for the treatment of refractory auto-immune haemolytic anaemia and auto-immune thrombocytopenia purpura. Br J Haematol. 2002;117(3):712–715. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2141.2002.03430.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin JT, Wang WS, Yen CC, et al. Myelodysplastic syndrome complicated by autoimmune hemolytic anemia: remission of refractory anemia following mycophenolate mofetil. Ann Hematol. 2002;81(12):723–726. doi:10.1007/s00277-002-0539-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotb R, Pinganaud C, Trichet C, et al. Efficacy of mycophenolate mofetil in adult refractory auto-immune cytopenias: a single center preliminary study. Eur J Haematol. 2005;75(1):60–64. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0609.2005.00437.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao VK, Dugan F, Dale JK, et al. Use of mycophenolate mofetil for chronic, refractory immune cytopenias in children with autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome. Br J Haematol. 2005;129(4):534–538. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2141.2005.05496.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Connell N, Goodyer M, Gleeson M, et al. Successful treatment with rituximab and mycophenolate mofetil of refractory autoimmune hemolytic anemia post-hematopoietic stem cell transplant for dyskeratosis congenita due to TINF2 mutation. Pediatr Transplant. 2014;18(1):E22–E24. doi:10.1111/petr.12172.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jäger U, Barcellini W, Broome CM, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of autoimmune hemolytic anemia in adults: recommendations from the First International Consensus Meeting. Blood Rev. 2020;41:100648. doi:10.1016/j.blre.2019.100648.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Besa EC. Rapid transient reversal of anemia and long-term effects of maintenance intravenous immunoglobulin for autoimmune hemolytic anemia in patients with lymphoproliferative disorders. Am J Med. 1988;84(4):691–698. doi:10.1016/0002-9343(88)90106-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flores G, Cunningham-Rundles C, Newland AC, et al. Efficacy of intravenous immunoglobulin in the treatment of autoimmune hemolytic anemia: results in 73 patients. Am J Hematol. 1993;44(4):237–242. doi:10.1002/ajh.2830440404.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar