Health and goal-directed behavior: The nonconscious regulation and motivation of goals and their pursuit

References

• Aarts , H. and Dijksterhuis , A. 2000a . Habits as knowledge structures: Automaticity in goal-directed behavior . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 78 : 53 – 63 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aarts , H. and Dijksterhuis , A. 2000b . The automatic activation of goal-directed behaviour: The case of travel habit . Journal of Environmental Psychology , 20 : 75 – 82 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aarts , H. and Dijksterhuis , A. 2003 . The silence of the library: Environment, situational norm and social behavior . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 84 : 18 – 28 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aarts , H. and Hassin , R. 2005 . “ Automatic goal inferences and contagion: On pursuing goals one perceives in other people's behavior ” . In Social motivation: Conscious and unconscious processes , Edited by: Forgas , J. P. , Williams , D. D. and Von Hippel , W. 153 – 167 . New York, NY : Psychology Press .
   Google Scholar
• Aarts , H. , Verplanken , B. and Van Knippenberg , A. 1997 . Habit and information use in travel mode choices . Acta Psychologica , 96 : 1 – 14 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aarts , H. , Verplanken , B. and Van Knippenberg , A. 1998 . Predicting behavior from actions in the past: Repeated decision making or a matter of habit? . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 28 : 1355 – 1374 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aarts , H. , Dijksterhuis , A. P. and Midden , C. 1999 . To plan or not to plan? Goal achievement of interrupting the performance of mundane behaviors . European Journal of Social Psychology , 29 : 971 – 979 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aarts , H. , Gollwitzer , P. M. and Hassin , R. R. 2004 . Goal contagion: Perceiving is for pursuing . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 87 : 23 – 37 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aarts , H. , Chartrand , T. L. , Custers , R. , Danner , U. , Dik , G. , Jefferis , V. and Cheng , C. M. 2005 . Social stereotypes and automatic goal pursuit . Social Cognition , 23 : 464 – 489 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aarts , H. , Custers , R. and Holland , R. 2007 . On the cessation of nonconscious goal pursuit: When goals and negative affect are co-activated . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 92 : 165 – 178 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aarts , H. , Dijksterhuis , A. , & Dik , G. ( in press ). Goal contagion: Inferring goals from other's actions-and what it leads to . In J. Y. Shah & W. L. Gardner Handbook of motivation science . New York, NY : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ajzen , I. 1991 . The theory of planned behavior . Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , 50 : 179 – 211 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , M. C. and Spellman , B. A. 1995 . On the status of inhibitory mechanisms in cognition: Memory retrieval as a model case . Psychological Review , 102 : 68 – 100 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baars , B. J. and Franklin , S. 2003 . How conscious experience and working memory interact . Trends in Cognitive Science , 7 : 166 – 172 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baddeley , A. D. 1992 . Consciousness and working memory . Consciousness and Cognition , 1 : 3 – 6 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baddeley , A. D. 1993 . “ Working memory and conscious awareness ” . In Theories of memory , Edited by: Collins , A. and Gathercole , S. 11 – 28 . Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Baddeley , A. D. and Hitch , G. 1974 . “ Working memory ” . In The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory , Edited by: Bower , G. Vol. 8 , 47 – 89 . New York, NY : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Baddeley , A. D. and Logie , R. H. 1999 . “ Working memory: The multiple-component model ” . In Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control , Edited by: Miyake , A. and Shah , P. 28 – 61 . New York, NY : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bandura , A. 1986 . Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory , Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice-Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Bargh , J. A. 1990 . “ Auto-motives: Preconscious determinants of social interaction ” . In Handbook of motivation and cognition , Edited by: Higgins , E. T. and Sorrentino , R. M. Vol. 2 , 93 – 130 . New York, NY : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bargh , J. A. and Gollwitzer , P. M. 1994 . “ Environmental control of goal-directed action: Automatic and strategic contingencies between situations and behavior ” . In Integrative views of motivation, cognition, and emotion. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation , Edited by: Spaulding , W. D. Vol. 41 , 71 – 124 . Lincoln, NE : University of Nebraska Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bargh , J. A. and Ferguson , M. J. 2000 . Beyond behaviorism: On the automaticity of higher mental processes . Psychological Bulletin , 126 : 925 – 945 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bargh , J. A. , Lombardi , W. J. and Higgins , E. T. 1988 . Automaticity of chronically accessible constructs in person×situation effects on person perception: It's just a matter of time . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 55 : 599 – 605 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bargh , J. A. , Gollwitzer , P. M. , Lee Chai , A. , Barndollar , K. and Trötschel , R. 2001 . The automated will: Nonconscious activation and pursuit of behavioral goals . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 81 : 1014 – 1027 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumeister , R. F. , Bratslavsky , E. , Muraven , M. and Tice , D. M. 1998 . Ego-depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 74 : 1252 – 1265 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bechara , A. , Damasio , H. and Damasio , A. R. 2000 . Emotion, decision making and the orbitofrontal cortex . Cerebral Cortex , 10 : 295 – 307 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bentler , P. M. and Speckart , G. 1979 . Models of attitude-behavior relations . Psychological Review , 86 : 452 – 464 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berridge , K. C. 2001 . “ Reward learning: Reinforcement, incentives, and expectations ” . In The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory , Edited by: Medin , D. L. Vol. 40 , 223 – 278 . San Diego, CA : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Blackmore , S. 2003 . Consciousness: An introduction , New York, NY : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Brandimonte , M. , Einstein , G. O. , & McDaniel , M. A. . ( 1996 ). Prospective memory: Theory and applications . Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Bruner , J. S. and Goodman , C. C. 1947 . Value and need as organizing factors in perception . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 42 : 33 – 44 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruner , J. S. and Postman , L. 1948 . Symbolic value as an organizing factor in perception . Journal of Social Psychology , 27 : 203 – 208 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buss , D. M. 1988 . The evolution of human intra sexual competition: Tactics of mate attraction . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 54 : 616 – 628 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cabanac , M. 1992 . Pleasure: The common currency . Journal of Theoretical Biology , 155 : 173 – 200 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cacioppo , J. T. and Berntson , G. G. 1999 . The affect system: Architecture and operating characteristics . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 8 : 133 – 137 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canary , D. J. and Emmers-Sommer , T. M. 1997 . Sex and gender differences in personal relationships , New York, NY : The Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Carver , C. S. 2004 . Negative affects deriving from behavioral approach system . Emotion , 4 : 3 – 22 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carver , C. S. and Scheier , M. F. 1998 . On the self-regulation of behavior , New York, NY : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cocchini , G. , Logie , R. H. , Della Sala , S. and Baddeley , A. D. 2002 . Concurrent performance of two memory tasks: Evidence for domain-specific working memory systems . Memory and Cognition , 30 : 1086 – 1095 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Custers , R. and Aarts , H. 2005a . Beyond accessibility: The role of affect and goal-discrepancies in implicit processes of motivation and goal-pursuit . European Review of Social Psychology , 16 : 257 – 300 .
   Google Scholar
• Custers , R. and Aarts , H. 2005b . Positive affect as implicit motivator: On the nonconscious operation of behavioral goals . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 89 : 129 – 142 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Custers , R. and Aarts , H. 2007a . Goal-discrepant situations prime goal-directed actions if goals are temporarily or chronically accessible . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 33 : 623 – 633 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Custers , R. and Aarts , H. 2007b . In search of the nonconscious sources of goal pursuit: Accessibility and positive affective valence of the goal state . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 43 : 312 – 218 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Custers , R. , Maas , M. , Wildenbeest , M. , & Aarts , H. ( 2006 ). Nonconscious goal pursuit and the surmounting of physical and social obstacles . ( Manuscript under review ).
   Google Scholar
• Danner , U. N. , Aarts , H. , & De Vries , N. K. ( 2006a ). Habit formation and multiple options to goal attainment: Repeated selection of targets means causes inhibited access to alternatives . ( in press ).
   Google Scholar
• Danner , U. N. , Aarts , H. , & De Vries , N. K. ( 2006b ). Habit versus intention and the prediction of future behaviors: The role of frequency, stability and accessibility of behavior . ( Manuscript under review ).
   Google Scholar
• Deci , E. L. and Ryan , R. M. 1985 . Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior , New York, NY : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• De Houwer , J. 2003 . The extrinsic affective Simon task . Experimental Psychology , 50 : 77 – 85 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Houwer , J. , Thomas , S. and Baeyens , F. 2001 . Association learning of likes and dislikes: A review of 25 years of research on human evaluative conditioning . Psychological Bulletin , 127 : 853 – 869 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dijksterhuis , A. and Aarts , H. 2003 . On wildebeests and humans: The preferential detection of negative stimuli . Psychological Science , 14 : 14 – 18 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dik , G. , & Aarts , H. ( in press ). Behavioral cues to others’ motivation and goal-pursuit: The perception of effort facilitates goal inference and contagion . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology .
   Google Scholar
• Fazio , R. H. , Sanbonmatsu , D. M. , Powell , M. C. and Kardes , F. R. 1986 . On the automatic activation of attitudes . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 50 : 229 – 238 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fein , S. and Spencer , S. J. 1997 . Prejudice as self-image maintenance: Affirming the self through derogating others . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 73 : 31 – 44 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferguson , M. J. and Bargh , J. A. 2004 . Liking is for doing. Effects of goal pursuit on automatic evaluation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 87 : 557 – 572 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fishbach , A. , Friedman , R. S. and Kruglanski , A. W. 2003 . Leading us not into temptation: Momentary allurements elicit overriding goal activation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 84 : 296 – 309 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fishbach , A. , Shah , J. Y. and Kruglanski , A. W. 2004 . Emotional transfer in goal systems . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 40 : 723 – 738 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fishbein , M. and Ajzen , I. 1975 . Belief, attitude, intention and behavior: An introduction to theory and research , Reading, MA : Addison-Wesley .
   Google Scholar
• Fitzsimons , G. M. and Bargh , J. A. 2003 . Thinking of you: Nonconscious pursuit of interpersonal goals associated with relationship partners . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 84 : 148 – 163 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gollwitzer , P. M. 1993 . Goal achievement: The role of intentions . European Review of Social Psychology , 4 : 141 – 185 .
   Google Scholar
• Gollwitzer , P. M. 1999 . Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans . American Psychologist , 54 : 493 – 503 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gollwitzer , P. M. and Moskowitz , G. B. 1996 . “ Goal effects on action and cognition ” . In Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles , Edited by: Higgins , E. and Kruglanski , A. W. 361 – 399 . New York, NY : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gollwitzer , P. M. and Sheeran , P. 2006 . Implementation intentions and goal achievement: A meta-analysis of effects and processes . Advances in Experimental Social Psychology , 38 : 69 – 119 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray , J. A. 1987 . The psychology of fear and stress , 2nd ed , New York, NY : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hassin , R. R. , Aarts , H. and Ferguson , M. J. 2005 . Automatic goal inferences . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 41 : 129 – 140 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hassin , R. R. , Aarts , H. , Eitam , B. , Custers , R. , & Kleiman , T. ( in press ). Nonconscious goal-pursuit and the effortful control of behavior . In J. A. Bargh & E. Morsella The psychology of action ( Vol. 2 ). New York, NY : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Higgins , E. T. , Bargh , J. A. and Lombardi , W. 1985 . The nature of priming effects on categorization . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition , 11 : 59 – 69 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holland , R. , Aarts , H. and Langendam , R. 2006 . Breaking and creating habits on the working floor: A field-experiment on the power of implementation intentions . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 42 : 776 – 783 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isen , A. M. and Diamond , G. A. 1989 . “ Affect and automaticity ” . In Unintended thought , Edited by: Uleman , J. S. and Bargh , J. A. 124 – 152 . New York, NY : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• James , W. 1890 . The principles of psychology , London : Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Janz , N. K. and Becker , M. H. 1984 . The health belief model: A decade later . Health Education Quarterly , 11 : 1 – 47 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jeannerod , M. 1997 . The cognitive neuroscience of action , Oxford : Blackwell Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Kahneman , D. 1973 . Attention and effort , Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice-Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Kintsch , W. , Healy , A. , Hegarety , M. , Pennington , B. and Salthouse , T. 1999 . “ Eight questions and some general issues ” . In Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control , Edited by: Miyake , A. and Shah , P. 412 – 441 . New York, NY : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Klinger , E. 1975 . Consequences of commitment to and disengagement from incentives . Psychological Review , 82 : 1 – 25 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koole , S. L. , Smeets , K. , van Knippenberg , A. and Dijksterhuis , A. 1999 . The cessation of rumination through self-affirmation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 77 : 111 – 125 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kruglanski , A. W. , Shah , J. Y. , Fishbach , A. , Friedman , R. , Chun , W. Y. and Sleeth-Keppler , D. 2002 . “ A theory of goal-systems ” . In Advances in experimental social psychology , Edited by: Zanna , M. P. Vol. 34 , New York, NY : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lang , P. J. 1995 . The emotion probe: Studies of motivation and attention . American Psychologist , 50 : 372 – 385 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewin , K. 1936 . A dynamic theory of personality , New York, NY : McGraw-Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Locke , E. A. and Latham , G. P. 1990 . A theory of goal setting and task performance , Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Logan , G. D. 1989 . “ Automaticity and cognitive control ” . In Unintended thought , Edited by: Uleman , J. S. and Bargh , J. A. 52 – 74 . New York, NY : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Louis , M. R. and Sutton , R. I. 1991 . Switching cognitive gears: From habits of mind to active thinking . Human Relations , 44 : 55 – 76 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Margolin , L. 1989 . Gender and the prerogatives of dating and marriage: An experimental assessment of a sample of college students . Sex Roles , 20 : 91 – 102 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martijn , C. , Tenbült , P. , Merckelbach , H. , Dreezens , E. and De Vries , N. 2002 . Getting a grip on ourselves: Challenging expectancies about loss of energy after self-control . Social Cognition , 20 : 441 – 460 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDaniel , M. A. , Robinson-Riegler , B. and Einstein , G. O. 1998 . Prospective remembering: Perceptually driven or conceptually driven processes? . Memory & Cognition , 26 : 121 – 134 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mckone , E. 1995 . Short-term implicit memory for words and nonwords . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition , 21 : 1108 – 1126 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKoon , G. and Ratcliff , R. 1986 . Inferences about predictable events . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 12 : 82 – 91 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , N. E. and Dollard , J. 1941 . Social learning and imitation , New Haven, CT : Yale University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Miller , G. A. , Galanter , E. and Pribram , K. H. 1960 . Plans and the structure of behavior , London : Holt, Rinehart and Winston .
   Google Scholar
• Mischel , W. , Shoda , Y. and Rodriguez , M. I. 1989 . Delay of gratification in children . Science , 244 : 933 – 938 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyake , A. and Shah , P. 1999 . Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control , New York, NY : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Monsell , S. , & Driver , J. . ( 2000 ). Control of cognitive processes: Attention and performance XVIII . Cambridge, MA : The MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Moscovitch , M. 1994 . “ Memory and working with memory: Evaluation of a component process model and comparisons with other models ” . In Memory systems , Edited by: Schacter , D. L. 269 – 310 . Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Moskowitz , G. B. 2001 . “ Preconscious control and compensatory cognition ” . In Cognitive social psychology: The Princeton symposium on the legacy and future of social cognition , Edited by: Moskowitz , G. B. 333 – 358 . Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Moskowitz , G. B. 2002 . Preconscious effects of temporary goals on attention . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 38 : 397 – 404 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moskowitz , G. B. , Li , P. and Kirk , E. R. 2004 . “ The implicit volition model: On the preconscious regulation of temporarily adopted goals ” . In Advances in experimental social psychology , Edited by: Zanna , M. P. Vol. 36 , 317 – 404 . New York, NY : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Muraven , M. and Baumeister , R. F. 2000 . Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a muscle? . Psychological Bulletin , 126 : 247 – 259 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naccache , L. , Dehaene , S. , Cohen , L. , Habert , M. , Guichart-Gomez , E. Galanaud , D. 2005 . Effortless control: Executive attention and conscious feeling of mental effort are dissociable . Neuropsychologia , 43 : 1318 – 1328 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Navon , D. 1984 . Resources-A theoretical soup stone? . Psychological Review , 91 : 216 – 234 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neumann , O. 1997 . “ Beyond capacity: A functional view of attention ” . In Perspectives on perception and action , Edited by: Heuer , H. and Sanders , A. F. 361 – 394 . Hillsdale, NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Nisbett , R. E. and Wilson , T. D. 1977 . Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes . Psychological Review , 84 : 231 – 259 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norman , D. A. and Shallice , T. 1986 . “ Attention and action: Willed and automatic control of behavior ” . In Consciousness and self-regulation: Advances in research and theory , Edited by: Davidson , R. J. , Schwartz , G. E. and Shapiro , D. Vol. 4 , 1 – 18 . New York, NY : Plenum .
   Google Scholar
• Nørretranders , T. 1991 . The user illusion: Cutting consciousness down to size , New York, NY : Penguin .
   Google Scholar
• Orbell , S. , Hodgkins , S. and Sheeran , P. 1997 . Implementation intentions and the theory of planned behavior . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 23 : 953 – 962 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Reilly , R. C. , Braver , T. S. and Cohen , J. D. 1999 . “ A biologically-based computational model of working memory ” . In Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control , Edited by: Miyake , A. and Shah , P. New York, NY : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ouellette , J. A. and Wood , W. 1998 . Habit and intention in everyday life: The multiple processes by which past behavior predicts future behavior . Psychological Bulletin , 124 : 54 – 74 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papies , E. , Stroebe , W. , & Aarts , H. ( in press ). Pleasure in the mind: Restrained eating and the case of spontaneous hedonic thoughts about food . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology .
   Google Scholar
• Pashler , H. E. 1998 . The psychology of attention , Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Powers , W. T. 1973 . Behavior: The control of perception , Chicago, IL : Aldine .
   Google Scholar
• Pratto , F. and John , O. P. 1991 . Automatic vigilance: The attention-grabbing power of negative social information . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 61 : 380 – 391 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prinz , W. 1997 . Perception and action planning . European Journal of Cognitive Psychology , 9 : 129 – 154 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prochaska , J. O. 1994 . Strong and weak principles for progressing from precontemplation to action on the basis of twelve problem behaviors . Health Psychology , 13 : 47 – 51 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers , R. W. 1983 . “ Cognitive and physiological processes in fear appeals and attitude change: A revised theory of protection motivation ” . In Sociopsychophysiology: A sourcebook , Edited by: Cacioppo , J. T. and Petty , R. E. 153 – 176 . New York, NY : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Reber , A. S. 1993 . Implicit learning and tacit knowledge: An essay on the cognitive unconscious , New York, NY : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ronis , D. L. , Yates , J. F. and Kirscht , J. P. 1989 . “ Attitudes, decisions, and habits as determinants of repeated behavior ” . In Attitude structure and function , Edited by: Pratkanis , A. R. , Breckler , S. J. and Greenwald , A. G. Hillsdale, NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Rozin , P. and Royzman , E. B. 2001 . Negativity bias, negativity dominance, and contagion . Personality and Social Psychology Review , 5 : 296 – 320 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell , J. A. 2003 . Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion . Psychological Review , 110 : 145 – 172 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salamone , J. D. , Correa , M. , Mingote , S. M. and Weber , S. M. 2005 . Beyond the reward hypothesis: Alternative functions of nucleus accumbens dopamine . Current Opinion in Pharmacology , 5 : 34 – 41 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Senchak , M. , Leonard , K. E. and Greene , B. W. 1998 . Alcohol use among college students as a function of their typical social drinking context . Psychology of Addictive Behaviors , 12 : 62 – 70 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah , J. Y. 2003 . Automatic for the people: How representations of significant others implicitly affect goal pursuit . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 84 : 661 – 681 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah , J. Y. and Kruglanski , A. W. 2002 . Priming against your will: How accessible alternatives affect goal pursuit . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 38 : 368 – 383 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah , J. Y. , Friedman , R. and Kruglanski , A. W. 2002 . Forgetting all else: On the antecedents and consequences of goal shielding . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 83 : 1261 – 1280 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheeran , P. , Aarts , H. , Custers , R. , Webb , T. L. , Cooke , R. and Rivis , A. 2005 . The goal-dependent automaticity of drinking habits . British Journal of Social Psychology , 44 : 47 – 63 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shizgal , P. 1999 . “ On the neural computation of utility: Implications from studies of brain stimulation reward ” . In Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology , Edited by: Kaheman , D. , Diener , E. and Schwarz , N. 500 – 524 . New York : Russell Sage Foundation .
   Google Scholar
• Skinner , B. F. 1953 . Science and human behavior , Oxford : Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Smith , E. E. and Jonides , J. 1999 . Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes . Science , 283 : 1657 – 1661 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stroebe , W. , Mensink , W. , Schut , H. , Aarts , H. , & Kruglanski , A. ( in press ). Goal conflict processes in restrained eating behavior . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology .
   Google Scholar
• Treise , D. , Wohburg , J. M. and Otnes , C. C. 1999 . Understanding the “social gifts” of drinking rituals: An alternative framework for PSA developers . Journal of Advertising , 28 : 17 – 31 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Triandis , H. C. 1980 . “ Values, attitudes, and interpersonal behavior ” . In Nebraska symposium on motivation, 1979 , Edited by: Howe , H. E. Jr and Page , M. M. Lincoln, NE : University of Nebraska Press .
   Google Scholar
• Uleman , J. S. , Hon , A. , Roman , R. J. and Moskowitz , G. B. 1996 . On-line evidence for spontaneous trait inferences at encoding . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 22 : 377 – 394 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vallacher , R. R. and Wegner , D. M. 1987 . What do people think they're doing? Action identification and human behavior . Psychological Review , 94 : 3 – 15 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Den Berg , S. , Aarts , H. , Midden , C. and Verplanken , B. 2004 . Categorization and executive load in prospective memory tasks . European Journal of Cognitive Psychology , 16 : 511 – 533 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veltkamp , M. , Aarts , H. , & Custers , R. ( 2006 ). Goal pursuit and functional perception: The effects of incentive value on perceived size of goal-related objects . ( Manuscript under review ).
   Google Scholar
• Verplanken , B. and Aarts , H. 1999 . Habit, attitudes, and planned behaviour. Is habit an empty construct or an interesting case of goal-directed automaticity? . European Review of Social Psychology , 10 : 101 – 134 .
   Google Scholar
• Verplanken , B. , Aarts , H. , Van Knippenberg , A. and Van Knippenberg , C. 1994 . Attitude versus general habit: Antecedents of travel mode choice . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 24 : 285 – 300 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verplanken , B. , Aarts , H. , van Knippenberg , A. and Moonen , A. 1998 . Habit versus planned behaviour: A field experiment . British Journal of Social Psychology , 37 : 111 – 128 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson , J. B. 1925 . Behaviorism , New York, NY : Norton and Company .
   Google Scholar
• Watson , D. and Clark , L. A. 1992 . Affects separable and inseparable: On the hierarchical arrangement of the negative affects . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 62 : 489 – 505 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wegner , D. M. 2002 . The illusion of conscious will , Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Wegner , D. M. and Bargh , J. A. 1998 . “ Control and automaticity in social life ” . In The handbook of social psychology , 4th ed , Edited by: Gilbert , D. T. , Fiske , S. T. and Lindzey , G. 446 – 496 . Boston, MA : McGraw-Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Wilson , T. D. 2002 . Strangers to ourselves: Discovering the adaptive unconscious , Cambridge, MA : Belknap Press of Harvard University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Winkielman , P. and Berridge , K. C. 2004 . Unconscious emotion . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 13 : 120 – 123 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winkielman , P. , Berridge , K. C. and Wilbarger , J. 2005 . Unconscious affective reactions to masked happy versus angry faces influence consumption behavior and judgments of value . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 31 : 121 – 135 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood , W. , Quinn , J. M. and Kashy , D. A. 2002 . Habits in everyday life: Thought, emotion, and action . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 83 : 1281 – 129 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood , W. , Tam , L. and Guerrero-Witt , M. 2005 . Changing circumstances, disrupting habits . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 88 : 918 – 933 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wyer , R. S. and Srull , T. K. 1986 . Human cognition in its social context . Psychological Review , 93 : 322 – 359 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zajonc , R. B. 1980 . Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences . American Psychologist , 35 : 151 – 175 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar