References
- Abdel-Khalek, A. M., & Lester, D. (2012). Constructions of religiosity, subjective well-being, anxiety, and depression in two cultures: Kuwait and USA. International Journal of Society Psychiatry,58(2), 138–145. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764010387545
- Abdul-Khalek, A. M., & Lester, D. (2003). Death obsession in Kuwaiti and American college students. Death Studies, 27 (6): 541–553. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/07481180302881
- Abdulrahim, M. A., Al-Kandari, A. A., & Hasanen, M. (2009). The influence of American television programs on university students in Kuwait: A synthesis. European Journal of American Culture, 28(1), 57–74. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1386/ejac.28.1.57_1
- Al-Kandari, A., & Gaither, T. K. (2011). Arabs, the west and public relations: A critical/cultural study of Arab cultural values. Public Relations Review, 37(3), 266–273. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2011.04.002
- Al-Kandari, A. A., & Hasanen, M. M. (2017). Egypt 5 years after the revolution: A political gratifications study of the motives for viewing television news and political programs that predict political attitudes. Electronic News, 12(2), 128–144. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1931243117719927
- Allagui, I., & Al-Najjar, A. (2018). From women empowerment to nation branding: A case study from the United Arab Emirates. International Journal of Communication, 12(18), 68–85.
- Al-Shammari, M. (2013, April 6). Women as police officers: A report. Alrai Newspaper. Alrai Publications. Retrieved http://www.alraimedia.com/ar/article/local/2013/04/06/401123/nr/nc
- Bartky, S. L. (1990). Femininity and domination: Studies in the phenomenology of oppression. New York: Routledge.
- Brandtzaeg, P. B., Liders, M., & Skjetne, J. H. (2010). Too many Facebook “friends”? Content sharing and sociability versus the need for privacy in social network sites. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 26(11–12), 1006–1030. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2010.516719
- Buscemi, E. (2017). Resistant identities: Culture and politics among Kuwaiti youth. Contemporary Social Science, 12(3–4), 258–271. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/21582041.2017.1402205
- Croucher, S. M., Spencer, A. T., & McKee, C. (2014). Religion, religiosity, sex, and willingness to express political opinions: A spiral of silence analysis of the 2008 US presidential election. Atlantic Journal of Communication, 22(2), 111–123. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/15456870.2014.890001
- Dalisay, F. S. (2012). The spiral of silence and conflict avoidance: Examining antecedents of opinion expression concerning the US military buildup in the Pacific Island of Guam. Communication Quarterly, 60(4), 481–503. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/01463373.2012.704567
- Dashti, A. A., Al-Abdullah, H. H., & Johar, H. A. (2015). Social media and the spiral of silence: The case of Kuwaiti female students political discourse on Twitter. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 16(3), 42–53.
- Dwairy, M. A. (2006). Counseling and psychotherapy with Arabs and Muslims: A culturally sensitive approach. Teachers College Press.
- Edelsky, C. (1981). Who's got the floor? Language in Society,10(3), 383–421.
- Fredericksen, E. (2000). Muted colors: Gender and classroom silence. Language Arts,77(4), 301–308.
- Gaither, T. K., & Al-Kandari, A. J. (2014). The cultural economic model and public relations in the Middle East: An examination of the Islamic banking system. Public Relations Review,40(1), 33–41. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2013.11.003
- Gearhart, S., & Zhang, W. (2018). Same spiral, different day? Testing the spiral of silence across issue types. Communication Research, 45(1), 34–54. https://doi.org/0093650215616456.
- González, A. (2013). Islamic feminism in Kuwait: The politics and paradoxes. Springer.
- Hamidi, Y. N. (2016). Islamic feminism in Kuwait: The politics and paradoxes. Sociology of Islam, 4(4), 407–410. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1163/22131418-00404004
- Hampton, K. N., Rainie, H., Lu, W., Dwyer, M., Shin, I., & Purcell, K. (2014). Social media and the ‘spiral of silence’. Pew Research Center.
- Hampton, K. N., Shin, I., & Lu, W. (2017). Social media and political discussion: When online presence silences offline conversation. Information, Communication & Society, 20(7), 1090–1107. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2016.1218526
- Hasanen, M. M., Al-Kandari, A. A., & Al-Sharoufi, H. (2014). The role of English language and international media as agents of cultural globalisation and their impact on identity formation in Kuwait. Globalisation, Societies and Education, 12(4), 542–563. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/14767724.2013.861972
- Herb, M. (2016). The origins of Kuwait’s national assembly. London School of Economics and Political Science. London School for Economic and Political Science. Retrieved February 3, 2018 from http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/65693/1/39_MichaelHerb.pdf
- Ho, S. S., Chen, V. H. H., & Sim, C. C. (2013). The spiral of silence: Examining how cultural predispositions, news attention, and opinion congruency relate to opinion expression. Asian Journal of Communication, 23(2), 113–134. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/01292986.2012.725178
- Ho, S. S., & McLeod, D. M. (2008). Social-psychological influences on opinion expression in face-to-face and computer-mediated communication. Communication Research, 35(2), 190–207. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650207313159
- Hofstede, G. (2020). Cultural dimensions. Hofstede Insights. Retrieved August 3, 2017 from https://geert-hofstede.com
- Hong, S. C. (2020). A cross-cultural study of the spiral of silence theory with individualism-collectivism and uncertainty avoidance. The Journal of the Korea Contents Association, 20(3), 286–297.
- Huang, H. (2005). A cross-cultural test of the spiral of silence. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 17(3), 324–345. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edh065
- Jamal, A., & Melkote, S. R. (2008). Viewing and avoidance of Al-Jazeera satellite television channel in Kuwait: A uses and gratifications perspective. Asian Journal of Communication,18(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/0129298701823732.
- Jandt, F. E. (2006). An introduction to intercultural communication: Identities in a global community. London: Sage.
- Katz, C., & Baldassarre, M. (1992). Using the 'L-word' in public: A test of the spiral of silence in conservative Orange Country, California. Public Opinion Quarterly,56(2), 232–235. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1086/269313
- Kown, K. H., Moon, S. I., & Stefanone, M. A. (2015). Unspeaking on Facebook? Testing network effects on self-censorship of political expressions in social network sites. Quality & Quantity, 49(4), 1417–1435. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-014-0078-8
- Lewis, M. G. (1993). Without a word: Teaching beyond women's silence. New York: Routledge.
- Luarn, P., & Hsieh, A. Y. (2014). Speech or silence: The effect of user anonymity and member familiarity on the willingness to express opinions in virtual communities. Online Information Review,38(7), 881–895. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/oir-03-2014-0076
- Maktabi, R. (2016). Female citizenship and family law in Kuwait and Qatar: Globalization and pressures for reform in two rentier states. Nidaba, 1(1), 20–34.
- Malaspina, C. (2014). The spiral of silence and social media: Analyzing Noelle-Neumann's phenomenon application the the Web during the Italian Political Elections of 2013. A dissertation. London School of Economic and Political Science.
- Maslach, C., Santee, R. T., & Wade, C. (1987). Individuation, gender role, and dissent: Personality mediators of situational forces. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(6), 1088–1093. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.6.1088
- Matsumoto, D., Yoo, S. H., & Fontaine, J. (2008). Mapping expressive differences around the world: The relationship between emotional display rules and individualism versus collectivism. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 39(1), 55–74. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022107311854
- Matthes, J., Hayes, A. F., Rojas, H., Shen, F., Min, S. J., & Dylko, I. B. (2012). Exemplifying a dispositional approach to cross-cultural spiral of silence research: Fear of social isolation and the inclination to self-censor. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 24(3), 287–305. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/eds015
- Matthes, J., Knoll, J., & von Sikorski, C. (2018). The “spiral of silence” revisited: A meta-analysis on the relationship between perceptions of opinion support and political opinion expression. Communication Research, 45(1), 3–33. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650217745429
- Matthes, J., Rios Morrison, K., & Schemer, C. (2010). A spiral of silence for some: Attitude certainty and the expression of political minority opinions. Communication Research, 37(6), 774–800. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650210362685
- Meneley, A. (2007). Tournaments of value: Sociability and hierarchy in a Yemeni town [Kindle version]. University of Toronto Press.
- Meyer, H. K., & Speakman, B. (2016). Quieting the commenters: The spiral of silence's persistent effect on online news forums. International Symposium on Online Journalism,6(1), 51–70.
- Nekmat, E., & Gonzenbach, W. J. (2013). Multiple opinion climates in online forums: Role of website source reference and within-forum opinion congruency. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 90(4), 736–756. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699013503162
- Neuwirth, K., & Frederick, E. (2004). Peer and social influence on opinion expression: Combining the theories of planned behavior and the spiral of silence. Communication Research, 31(6), 669–703. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650204269388
- Noelle-Neumann, E. (1977). Turbulences in the climate of opinion: Methodological applications in the spiral of silence theory. Public Opinion Quarterly,41(2), 143–158. https://dpi.org/10.1086/268371
- Noelle-Neumann, E. (1993). The spiral of silence: Public opinion — Our social skin. University of Chicago.
- Nydell, M. (2018). Understanding Arabs: A guide for modern times. Intercultural Press.
- Oetzel, J. G., & Bolton-Oetzel, K. (1997). Exploring the relationship between self-construal and dimensions of group effectiveness. Management Communication Quarterly, 10(3), 289–315. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0893318997010003002
- Orenstein, P. (1995). School girls: Young women, self-esteem, and the confidence gap. New York: Doubleday.
- Patai, R. (2014). The Arab mind. Red Brick Press.
- Patterson, P. M. (2000). The talking cure and the silent treatment: Some limits of “discourse“ as speech. Administrative Theory & Praxis,22(4), 663–695. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10841806.2000.11643483
- Rousseau, R. (2013). Politics, elections and the “Reality” of women’s rights in Kuwait. Khazar University. Retrieved: http://dspace.khazar.org/bitstream/20.500.12323/2618/1/Politics.pdf
- Salmon, C. T., & Neuwirth, K. (1990). Perceptions of opinion “climates“ and willingness to discuss the issue of abortion. Journalism Quarterly,67(3), 567–577. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/107769909006700312
- Scheufele, D. A., & Moy, P. (2000). Twenty-five years of the SOS: A conceptual review and empirical outlook. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 12(1), 3–28. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00352.x
- Sharif, A. A., & Al-Kandari, A. A. (2010). The use of online bulletin boards by females in the Gulf cooperation council countries. Telematics and Informatics, 27(1), 42–50. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2009.03.001
- Shen, K., & Khalifa, M. (2010). Facebook usage among Arabic college students: Preliminary findings on gender differences. International Journal of e-Business Management, 4(1), 53–65. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3316/IJEBM0401053
- Spinda, J. S. (2014). Keep it local or keep it out? An examination of the spiral of silence and local alcohol option laws in Kentucky. Kentucky Journal of Communication,33(2), 44–65.
- Strobl, S. (2010). Progressive or neo-traditional?: Policewomen in Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Countries. Feminist Formations, 22(3), 51–74. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1353/ff.2010.0028
- van Mierlo, T. (2014). The 1% rule in four digital health social networks: An observational study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 16(2), e33. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.2966
- Waipeng, L., Willnat, L., & Detenber, B. (2004). Individual-level predictors of public outspokenness: A test of the spiral of silence theory in Singapore’. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 14(4), 391–412. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/14.4.391
- Williams, M. (2016). Youth, peace, and security: A new agenda for the Middle East and North Africa. Journal of International Affairs, 69(2), 103–114.
- Willnat, L., Lee, W., & Detenber, B. (2002). Individual-level predictors of public outspokenness: A test of the SOS theory in Singapore. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 14(4), 391–412. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/14.4.391
- World Values Survey. (2018). World value survey. Retrieved http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/wvs.jsp
- Wyatt, R., Katz, E., Levinsohn, H., & Al-Haj, M. (1996). The dimensions of expression inhibition: Perceptions of obstacles to free speech in three cultures. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 8(3), 229–247. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/8.3.229
- Yom, S. (2020). Roles, identity, and security: Foreign policy contestation in monarchical Kuwait. European Journal of International Relations, 26(2), 569–593. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066119880232
- Yousef, F. S. (1974). Cross-cultural communication: Aspects of contrastive social values between North Americans and Middle Easterners. Human Organization,33(4), 383–387. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.17730/humo.33.4.b7075h3681212844
- Yun, G., & Park, S. (2011). Selective posting: Willingness to post a message online. Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 16(2), 201–227. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2010.01533.x
- Zhao, S., Grasmuck, S., & Martin, J. (2008). Identity construction on Facebook: Digital empowerment in anchored relationships. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(5), 1816–1836. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2008.02.012