Application of the Terrorist Radicalization Assessment Protocol (TRAP-18) to the case of the Army-Navy recruiting center attacker in Little Rock, Arkansas

References

• Allely, C., & Faccini, L. (2019). Clinical profile, risk, and critical factors and the application of the “path toward intended violence” model in the case of mass shooter Dylann Roof. Deviant Behavior, 40(6), 672–689. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2018.1437653
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allely, C. S. (2020). The contributory role of psychopathology and inhibitory control in the case of mass shooter James Holmes. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 51, Article 101382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2020.101382
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allely, C. S., & Faccini, L. (2017). “Path to intended violence” model to understand mass violence in the case of Elliot Rodger. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 37, 201–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2017.09.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allely, C. S., & Wicks, S. J. (2022). The feasibility and utility of the terrorist radicalization assessment protocol (TRAP-18): A review and recommendations. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2022-51960-001
   Google Scholar
• Basra, R., & Newmann, P. R. (2017). Crime as jihad: Developments in the crime-terror nexus in Europe. Combating Terrorism Center, 10, 9.
   Google Scholar
• Bergen, P. (2011). Assessing the terrorist threat. DIANE Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Bergen, P., & Hoffman, B. (2010). Assessing the terrorist threat. A report of the Bipartisan Policy Center’s National Security Preparedness Group, 6. http://ctcitraining.org/docs/BPC_AssessTerroristThreat.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Bergen, P., Hoffman, B., & Tiedemann, K. (2011). Assessing the jihadist terrorist threat to America and American interests. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 34(2), 65–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2011.538830
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Böckler, N., Allwinn, M., Metwaly, C., Wypych, B., Hoffmann, J., & Zick, A. (2021). Islamist terrorists in Germany and their warning behaviors: A comparative assessment of attackers and other convicts using the TRAP-18. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 7(3-4), 157–172. https://doi.org/10.1037/tam0000150
   Google Scholar
• Böckler, N., Hoffmann, J., & Meloy, J. R. (2017). “Jihad against the enemies of Allah”: The Berlin Christmas market attack from a threat assessment perspective. Violence and Gender, 4(3), 73–80. https://doi.org/10.1089/vio.2017.0040
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Böckler, N., Hoffmann, J., & Zick, A. (2015). The Frankfurt airport attack: A case study on the radicalization of a lone-actor terrorist. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 2(3-4), 153–163. https://doi.org/10.1037/tam0000045
   Google Scholar
• Brugh, C. S., Desmarais, S. L., & Simons-Rudolph, J. (2020). Application of the TRAP-18 framework to US and Western European lone actor terrorists. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2020.1758372
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calhoun, F. S., & Weston, S. W. (2003). Contemporary threat management: A practical guide for identifying, assessing, and managing individuals of violent intent. Specialized Training Services.
   Google Scholar
• Challacombe, D. J., & Lucas, P. A. (2019). Postdicting violence with sovereign citizen actors: An exploratory test of the TRAP-18. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 6(1), 51–59. https://doi.org/10.1037/tam0000105
   Google Scholar
• Clemmow, C., Bouhana, N., & Gill, P. (2020). Analysing person-exposure patterns in lone-actor terrorism: Implications for threat assessment and intelligence gathering. Criminology and Public Policy, 19(2), 451–482. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12466
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cope, N. (2004). ‘Intelligence led policing or policing led intelligence?’ Integrating volume crime analysis into policing. British Journal of Criminology, 44(2), 188–203. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/44.2.188
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corner, E., & Gill, P. (2015). A false dichotomy? Mental illness and lone-actor terrorism. Law and Human Behavior, 39(1), 23–34. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000102
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corner, E., Gill, P., & Mason, O. (2016). Mental health disorders and the terrorist: A research note probing selection effects and disorder prevalence. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 39(6), 560–568. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2015.1120099
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deflem, M. (2012). Joint terrorism task forces. In Frank Shanty (Ed.), Counterterrorism: From the cold war to the war on terror, vol. 1 (pp. 423–426). Praeger Security International.
   Google Scholar
• Douglas, K. S., Guy, L. S., & Hart, S. D. (2009). Psychosis as a risk factor for violence to others: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 135(5), 679–706. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016311
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edens, J. F., Desforges, D. M., Fernandez, K., & Palac, C. A. (2004). Effects of psychopathy and violence risk testimony on mock juror perceptions of dangerousness in a capital murder trial. Psychology, Crime, and Law, 10(4), 393–412. https://doi.org/10.1080/10683160310001629274
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ennis, L., Hargreaves, T., & Gulayets, M. (2015). The integrated threat and risk assessment centre: A program evaluation investigating the implementation of threat management recommendations. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 2(2), 114–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/tam0000040
   Google Scholar
• Erlandsson, Å, & Reid Meloy, J. (2018). The Swedish school attack in Trollhättan. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 63(6), 1917–1927. https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.13800
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Etter, G. W. (2015). Changes in local law enforcement brought about by 9/11. In Terrorism and counterterrorism today (Vol. 20, pp. 219–240). Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
   Google Scholar
• Faccini, L. (2016). The application of the models of autism, psychopathology and deficient Eriksonian development and the path of intended violence to understand the Newtown shooting. Archives of Forensic Psychology, 1(3), 1–13.
   Google Scholar
• Faccini, L., & Allely, C. (2016a). Mass violence in individuals with autism spectrum disorder and narcissistic personality disorder: A case analysis of Anders Breivik using the “path to intended and terroristic violence” model. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 31, 229–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2016.10.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faccini, L., & Allely, C. S. (2016b). Mass violence in an individual with an autism spectrum disorder: A case analysis of Dean Allen Mellberg using the” path to intended violence” model. International Journal of Psychology Research, 11(1), 1–18.
   Google Scholar
• Fein, R. A., & Vossekuil, B. (1999). Assassination in the United States: An operational study of recent assassins, attackers, and near-lethal approachers. Journal of Forensic Science, 44(2), 321–333.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• García-Andrade, R. F., Rendón-Luna, B. S., Prieto, B. R., Martínez, V. V., de Meneses, E. M. T., & Rodríguez, E. F. (2019). Forensic-psychiatric assessment of the risk of terrorist radicalisation in the mentally ill patient. Spanish Journal of Legal Medicine, 45(2), 59–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.remle.2019.01.003
   Google Scholar
• Gartenstein-Ross, D. (2014). Lone wolf Islamic terrorism: Abdulhakim Mujahid Muhammad (Carlos Bledsoe) case study. Terrorism and Political Violence, 26(1), 110–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2014.849921
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gill, P. (2015). Toward a scientific approach to identifying and understanding indicators of radicalization and terrorist intent: Eight key problems. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 2(3-4), 187–191. https://doi.org/10.1037/tam0000047
   Google Scholar
• Gill, P., Horgan, J., & Deckert, P. (2014). Bombing alone: Tracing the motivations and antecedent behaviors of lone-actor terrorists. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 59(2), 425–435.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodrum, S., & Woodward, W. (2016). Report on the Arapahoe High School shooting: Lessons learned on information sharing, threat assessment, and systems integrity. University of Colorado.
   Google Scholar
• Goodwill, A., & Meloy, J. R. (2019). Visualizing the relationship among indicators for lone actor terrorist attacks: Multidimensional scaling and the TRAP-18. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 37(5), 522–539. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2434
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray, R. (2010). Court ordered forensic evaluation. Arkansas State Hospital.
   Google Scholar
• Guldimann, A., & Meloy, J. R. (2020). Assessing the threat of lone-actor terrorism: The reliability and validity of the TRAP-18. Forensische Psychiatrie, Psychologie, Kriminologie, 14(2), 158–166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11757-020-00596-y
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamm, M. S., & Spaaij, R. (2017). Chapter 9. The little rock military shooting. In The age of lone wolf terrorism (pp. 174–191). New York Chichester, West Sussex: Columbia University Press. https://doi.org/10.7312/hamm18174-011
   Google Scholar
• Hoffmann, J., Meloy, J. R., Guldimann, A., & Ermer, A. (2011). Attacks on German public figures, 1968–2004: Warning behaviors, potentially lethal and non-lethal acts, psychiatric status, and motivations. Behavioral Sciences and The Law, 29(2), 155–179. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.979
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joyal, R. G. (2012). How far have we come? Information sharing, interagency collaboration, and trust within the law enforcement community. Criminal Justice Studies, 25(4), 357–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/1478601X.2012.728789
   Google Scholar
• Kenyon, J., Baker-Beall, C., & Binder, J. (2021). Lone-actor terrorism–a systematic literature review. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 1–24.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lloyd, M. (2019). Extremism risk assessment: A directory. Full report. Centre for Research and Evidence on Security Threats (CREST). crest.ac.uk.
   Google Scholar
• Meloy, J. R. (2017). The TRAP-18 manual version 1.0. Washington, DC: Global Institute of Forensic Research.
   Google Scholar
• Meloy, J. R., & Genzman, J. (2016). The clinical threat assessment of the lone-actor terrorist. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 39(4), 649–662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2016.07.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meloy, J. R., & Gill, P. (2016). The lone-actor terrorist and the TRAP-18. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 3(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1037/tam0000061
   Google Scholar
• Meloy, J. R., Goodwill, A., Clemmow, C., & Gill, P. (2021). Time sequencing the TRAP-18 indicators. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 8(1–2), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1037/tam0000157
   Google Scholar
• Meloy, J. R., Goodwill, A. M., Meloy, M. J., Amat, G., Martinez, M., & Morgan, M. (2019). Some TRAP-18 indicators discriminate between terrorist attackers and other subjects of national security concern. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 6(2), 93–110. https://doi.org/10.1037/tam0000119
   Google Scholar
• Meloy, J. R., Habermeyer, E., & Guldimann, A. (2015). The warning behaviors of Anders Breivik. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 2(3-4), 164–175. https://doi.org/10.1037/tam0000037
   Google Scholar
• Meloy, J. R., & O'toole, M. E. (2011). The concept of leakage in threat assessment. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 29(4), 513–527. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.986
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meloy, J. R., Roshdi, K., Glaz-Ocik, J., & Hoffmann, J. (2015). Investigating the individual terrorist in Europe. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 2(3-4), 140–152. https://doi.org/10.1037/tam0000036
   Google Scholar
• Meloy, R. J., Hoffmann, J., Guldimann, A., & James, D. (2012). The role of warning behaviors in threat assessment: An exploration and suggested typology. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 30(3), 256–279. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.999
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murrie, D., Cornell, D., & McCoy, W. (2005). Psychopathy, conduct disorder, and stigma: Does diagnostic labeling influence juvenile probation officer recommendations?. Law and Human Behavior, 29(3), 323–342. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-005-2415-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Threat Assessment Center. (2015). Investigating ideologically inspired violent extremists: Local partners are an asset. A case study on Abdulhakim Mujahid Muhammad. U.S. Secret Service, Department of Homeland Security.
   Google Scholar
• Petrila, J., & Skeem, J. L. (2003). Juvenile psychopathy: The debate. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 21(6), 689–694. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.569
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reid, W. H. (2018). A dark night in aurora: Inside James Holmes and the Colorado mass shootings. Skyhorse Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Schildkraut, J., Cowan, R. G., & Mosher, T. M. (2022). The Parkland mass shooting and the path to intended violence: A case study of missed opportunities and avenues for future prevention. Homicide Studies. https://doi.org/10.1177/10887679211062518
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuurman, B., Lindekilde, L., Malthaner, S., O'Connor, F., Gill, P., & Bouhana, N. (2019). End of the lone wolf: The typology that should not have been. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 42(8), 771–778. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2017.1419554
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silver, J., Horgan, J., & Gill, P. (2018). Foreshadowing targeted violence: Assessing leakage of intent by public mass murderers. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 38, 94–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2017.12.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkes, J. J. (2015). The creation of HIPAA Culture: Prioritizing privacy paranoia over patient care. 2014 BYU Law Review, 2014(5), 1213. https://digitalcommons.law.byu.edu/lawreview/vol2014/iss5/7
   Google Scholar
• Zierhoffer, D. M. (2014). Threat assessment: Do lone terrorists differ from other lone offenders? Journal of Strategic Security, 7(3), 48–62. https://doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.7.3.3
   Google Scholar