Development of a novel solid-phase extraction, LC-MS/MS method for the analysis of ethyl carbamate in alcoholic beverages: application to South African wine and spirits

References

• Budavari , S . 1989 . The Merck Index: an encyclopedia of chemicals, drugs and biologicals, , 11th , Rahway, NJ : Merck & Co .
   Google Scholar
• Canas , BJ , Joe , FL , Diachenko , GW and Burns , G . 1994 . Determination of ethyl carbamate in alcoholic beverages and soy sauce by gas chromatography with mass selective detection: collaborative study . J AOAC Int , 77 : 1530 – 1536 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Codex Draft, Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme CODEX Committee on Contaminants in Foods, Third Session. February 2009. Codex Alimentarius Commission E; [cited Feb 2011]. Available from: ftp://ftp.fao.org/codex/cccf3/cf03_13e.pdf/
   Google Scholar
• Daudt , CE , Ough , CS , Stevens , D and Herraiz , T . 1992 . Investigations into ethyl carbamate, n-propyl carbamate, and urea in fortified wines . Am J Enol Vitic , 43 : 318 – 322 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dennis , MJ , Howarth , N , Key , PE , Pointer , M and Massey , RC . 1989 . Investigation of ethyl carbamate levels in some fermented foods and alcoholic beverages . Food Addit Contam , 6 : 383 – 389 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). 2007. Ethyl carbamate and hydrocyanic acid in food and beverages: scientific opinion of the panel on contaminants. Eur Food Safety Auth J. 551:1–44.
   Google Scholar
• Fauhl , C and Wittkowski , R . 1992 . Determination of ethyl carbamate in wine by GC-SIM-MS after continuous extraction with diethyl ether . J High Res Chrom , 15 : 203 – 205 .
   Google Scholar
• Ferreira , MA and Fernandes , JO . 1992 . The application of an improved GC-MS procedure to investigate ethyl carbamate behaviour during the production of Madeira wines . Am J Enol Vitic , 43 : 339 – 343 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herbert , P , Santos , L , Bastos , M , Barros , P and Alves , A . 2002 . New HPLC method to determine ethyl carbamate in alcoholic beverages using fluorescence detection . J Food Sci , 67 : 1616 – 1620 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). 2010. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans, Vol. 96: Alcoholic beverage consumption and ethyl carbamate (urethane). Lyon (France): IARC.
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , RS . 2000 . Wine science: principles, practice and perception, , 2nd , San Diego (CA) : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Jacques , K , Lyons , TP and Kelsall , DR . 1999 . The alcohol textbook, , 3rd , Thrumpton (UK) : Nottingham University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Jagerdeo , E , Dugar , S , Foster , GD and Schenk , H . 2002 . Analysis of ethyl carbamate in wines using solid-phase extraction and multidimensional gas chromatography/mass spectrometry . J Agric Food Chem , 50 : 5797 – 5802 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). 2006. JECFA monograph, Sixty-fourth Meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. WHO and FAO; [cited Feb 2011]. Available from: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2006/9241660554_eng.pdf/
   Google Scholar
• Kostiainen , R and Kauppila , TJ . 2009 . Effect of eluent on the ionization process in liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry . J Chromatogr A , 1216 : 685 – 699 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lachenmeier , DW , Lima , MCP , Nóbrega , ICC , Pereira , JAP , Kerr-Corrêa , F , Kanteres , F and Rehm , J . 2010 . Cancer risk assessment of ethyl carbamate in alcoholic beverages from Brazil with special consideration to the spirits cachaça and tiquira . BMC Cancer , 10 : 266
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lachenmeier , DW , Nerlich , U and Kuballa , T . 2006 . Automated determination of ethyl carbamate in stone-fruit spirits using headspace solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry . J Chromatogr A , 1108 : 116 – 120 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lachenmeier , DW , Schehl , B , Kuballa , T , Frank , W and Senn , T . 2005 . Retrospective trends and current status of ethyl carbamate in German stone-fruit spirits . Food Addit Contam , 22 : 397 – 405 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liquor Products Act. 1989. Liquor Products Act, Act 60 of 1989. Government Gazette of the Republic of South Africa.
   Google Scholar
• MacKenzie , WM , Clyne , AH and MacDonald , LS . 1990 . Ethyl carbamate formation in grain spirits. Part II The identification and determination of cyanide related species involved in ethyl carbamate formation in Scotch grain whisky . J Inst Brew , 96 : 223 – 232 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McMaster , MC . 2005 . LC/MS a practical user's guide , Hoboken (NJ) : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Mirzoian , A and Mabud , A . 2006 . Comparison of methods for extraction of ethyl carbamate from alcoholic beverages in gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis . J AOAC Int , 89 : 1048 – 1051 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nóbrega , ICC , Pereira , JAP , Paiva , JE and Lachenmeier , DW . 2009 . Ethyl carbamate in pot still cachaćas (Brazilian sugar cane spirits): influence of distillation and storage conditions . Food Chem , 117 : 639 – 697 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Office International de la Vigne et du Vin (OIV). 2002. Compendium of international methods of wine and must analysis. Paris (France): OIV.
   Google Scholar
• Ough , CS , Stevens , D , Sendovski , T , Huang , Z and An , D . 1990 . Factors contributing to urea formation in commercially fermented wines . Am J Enol Vitic , 41 : 68 – 73 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park , S-K , Kim , CT , Lee , J-W , Jhee , OH , Om , AS , Kang , JS and Moon , TW . 2007 . Analysis of ethyl carbamate in Korean soy sauce using high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection or tandem mass spectrometry and gas chromatography with mass spectrometry . Food Contr , 18 : 975 – 982 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perestrelo , R , Petronilho , S , Câmara , JS and Rocha , SM . 2010 . Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with time of flight mass spectrometry combined with solid-phase microextraction as a powerful tool for quantification of ethyl carbamate in fortified wines . The case study of Madeira wines. J. Chromatogr A. , 1217 : 3441 – 3445 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevens , DF and Ough , CS . 1993 . Ethyl carbamate formation reaction of urea and citruline with ethanol in wine under low to normal temperature conditions . Am J Enol Viticult , 44 : 309 – 312 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tegmo-Larsson , IM and Henick-Kling , T . 1990 . The effect of fermentation and extended lees contact on ethyl carbamate formation in New York wine . Am J Enol Vitic , 41 : 269 – 272 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tegmo-Larsson , I and Spittler , TD . 1990 . Temperature and light effects on ethyl carbamate formation in wine during storage . Food Sci , 55 : 1166 – 1169 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waldner , M and Augustyn , OPH . 2005 . Ethyl carbamate in South African wine . Wineland , November : 98 – 101 .
   Google Scholar
• Weber , JV and Sharypov , VI . 2009 . Ethyl carbamate in foods and beverages: a review . Environ Chem Lett , 7 : 233 – 247 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whiton , RS and Zoecklein , BW . 2002 . Determination of ethyl carbamate in wine by solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry . Am J Enol Vitic , 53 : 60 – 63 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmerli , B and Schlatter , J . 1991 . Ethyl carbamate: analytical methodology, occurrence, formation, biological activity and risk assessment . Mutat Res , 259 : 325 – 350 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar