Explaining the vicious circle of political repression and islamic radicalism in Central Asia

References

• Abduvakhitov, A. (1995). Independent Uzbekistan: A Muslim community in development. In The international politics of Eurasia: v. 3: The politics of religion in Russia and the new states of Eurasia (pp. 1–17). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Abduvakhitov, A. (1993). Islamic revivalism in Uzbekistan. In D. Eickelman (Ed.), Russian Muslim frontiers. New directions in cross-cultural analysis (pp. 79–97). Indiana University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Achilov, D. (2015). Islamic revival and civil society in Kazakhstan. Civil Society and Politics in Central Asia, 81–110.
   Google Scholar
• Agnew, R. (2001). Building on the foundation of general strain theory: Specifying the types of strain most likely to lead to crime and delinquency. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 38(4), 319–361. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427801038004001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agnew, R. (2010). A general strain theory of terrorism. Theoretical Criminology, 14(2), 131–153. https://doi.org/10.1177/136248060935016
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Kassimi, K. (2021). The legal principles of Bethlehem & operation timber sycamore: The “Islamist winter” pre-emptively targets “Arab life” by hiring “Arab barbarians”. Laws, 10(3), 69. https://doi.org/10.3390/laws10030069
   Google Scholar
• Amanov, M. (2022). The revival of Islam in Turkmenistan. The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2022/06/the-revival-of-islam-in-turkmenistan/
   Google Scholar
• Baizakova, Z., & McDermott, R. N. (2015). Reassessing the barriers to Islamic radicalization in Kazakhstan. Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep11232.
   Google Scholar
• Bakhodyr, E. (2011). National ideology in the independent states of Central Asia and the Southern Caucasus: its phenomenon, specifics, and prospects. Central Asia and the Caucasus, 12(1), 141–150. https://silkroadstudies.org/resources/pdf/SilkRoadPapers/2008_01_SRP_Marat_National-Ideology.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Balci, B. (2018). Islam in Central Asia and the Caucasus since the fall of the Soviet Union. OUP.
   Google Scholar
• Baran, Z. (2005). Radical Islamists in Central Asia. Current Trends in Islamist Ideology, 2, 41–59.
   Google Scholar
• Beisenov, A. (2023). State-mandated Muslimness in Kazakhstan. Central Asia Program. https://centralasiaprogram.org/state-mandated-muslimness-kazakhstan/.
   Google Scholar
• Blua, A. T. (2013). Former chief mufti sentenced to prison for reasons that remain unclear. Eurasia Insight (2 de abril de 2004). https://www.rferl.org/a/1051995.html.
   Google Scholar
• Borisov, A. (2015, 28 August). Tajikistan’s Islamic opposition party faces ban amid crackdown. Yahoo News. https://sg.news.yahoo.com/tajikistans-islamic-opposition-party-faces-ban-amid-crackdown-183932621.html
   Google Scholar
• Breuer, J., & Elson, M. (2017). Frustration-aggression theory. Wiley Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Central Eurasia Project. (2010). Violations of freedom of religion or belief in Turkmenistan: A systematic challenge to human rights commitments. Open Society Foundations.
   Google Scholar
• Clement, V. (2020). Religion and the secular state in Turkmenistan. Central Asia-Caucasus Institute and Silk Road Studies Program. https://silkroadstudies.org/resources/Religion_and_the_Secular_State_in_Turkmenistan_-_Victoria_Clement_-_10.06.20_-_FINAL_wCover.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Corley, F. (2006). Turkmenistan: Government severely restricts Haj numbers. Forum 18. https://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=711.
   Google Scholar
• Cribb, J., & G. Herrmann (Eds.), (2007). After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy.
   Google Scholar
• Direnberger, L. (2020). Transforming Tajikistan: State-building and Islam in post-Soviet Central Asia: by Hélène Thibault (288 p). IB Tauris.
   Google Scholar
• Diyanat, M., Farhadi, M., & Ghadi, M. A. (2018). An analysis of the relationship between economic indicators and tendency toward Radical Islam in Central Asia. Central Eurasia Studies, 11(22), 101–121. https://doi.org/10.22059/JCEP.2018.221760.449680
   Google Scholar
• Duysheeva, R. (2019, May 20). Should Tablighi Jamaat be banned in Kyrgyzstan? CABAR. https://cabar.asia/en/should-tablighi-jamaat-be-banned-in-kyrgyzstan/
   Google Scholar
• Engvall, J. (2020). Religion and the secular state in Kyrgyzstan. American Foreign Policy Council.
   Google Scholar
• Epkenhans, T. (2016). The origins of the civil war in Tajikistan: Nationalism, Islamism, and violent conflict in post-Soviet space. Lexington Books.
   Google Scholar
• Facts and Details. (2024). Tajikistan Civil War – facts and details. https://factsanddetails.com/central-asia/Tajikistan/sub8_6a/entry-4858.html
   Google Scholar
• Falkenburg, L. (2013). On the brink: The resurgence of militant Islam in Central Asia. Small Wars & Insurgencies, 24(3), 375–393. https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2013.802603
   Google Scholar
• Falkov, M. (2019). Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU): History, financial base and a military structure. Moscow. Nezavisimaya Gazeta.Quoted in American Foreign Policy Council. (2011). The World Almanac of Islamism: 2011 Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Fierman, W. (2019). The Soviet “Transformation” of Central Asia. In Soviet Central Asia (pp. 11–35). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Forum 18. (2019). Turkmenistan: In Ramadan, Muslims fear “extremism” accusations. https://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2481
   Google Scholar
• Freedom House. (2023). The full country narrative report. https://freedomhouse.org/countries/freedom-world/scores
   Google Scholar
• Friedman, H. S., & Schustack, M. W. (2014). Personality: Classic theories and modern research (5th ed., pp. 204–207). Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Galtung, J. (1969). Violence, peace, and peace research. Journal of Peace Research, 6(3), 167–191. https://doi.org/10.1177/002234336900600301
   Google Scholar
• Galtung, J. (1975). The specific contribution of peace research to the study of the causes of violence: typologies. In UNESCO interdisciplinary expert meeting on the study of the causes of violence. UNESCO. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000056230
   Google Scholar
• Gleason, G. (2002). The politics of counterinsurgency in Central Asia. Problems of Post-Communism, 49(2), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/10758216.2002.11655975
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hochberg-Marom, A. (2022). Radicalization as a threat to the belt and road initiative. https://anathochbergmarom.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Article-to-Heinan-Insttute-Dr.-Anat-Hochberg-Marom-17.7.2020-FIANL.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Human Rights Watch. (2014). World Report 2014: Tajikistan. https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2014/country-chapters/tajikistan
   Google Scholar
• Human Rights Watch. (2023). Uzbekistan, Events of 2022. https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2023/country-chapters/uzbekistan
   Google Scholar
• Kamalov, E. (2017, August). New mosque construction in Kyrgyzstan may help in radicalisation fight, Caravanserai. https://central.asia news.com/en_GB/articles/cnmi_ca/features/2017/08/23/feature-01
   Google Scholar
• Karagiannis, E. (2016). The new face of political Islam in Central Asia: The rise of Islamo-democrats. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 36(2), 267–281. https://doi.org/10.1080/13602004.2016.1180888
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kepel, G. (2002). Jihad: The trail of political Islam. Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Khamidov, A. (2003). Countering the call: The US, Hizb-ut-Tahrir, and religious extremism in Central Asia. Saban Center for Middle East Policy at the Brookings Institution.
   Google Scholar
• Khamidov, A. (2017). When religion resorts to violence: Explaining the spatial variation in religious-based mobilization in Kyrgyzstan. In P. Jones (Ed.), Islam, society and politics in Central Asia. University of Pittsburgh Press.
   Google Scholar
• Khan, K. H. (2020). Central Asia and India: Emerging extended neighbourhood. New Century Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Khan, K. H. (2012). Discourses on Islamic banking and finance; a review. International Journal of Business and Management Tomorrow, 2(6).
   Google Scholar
• Khan, K. H., & Koch, H. (2021). Emerging Central Asia: Managing Great Power Relations. Blue Dome Press.
   Google Scholar
• Khalid, A. (2021). Islam in Central Asia 30 years after independence: debates, controversies and the critique of a critique. Central Asian Survey, 40(4), 539–554. https://doi.org/10.1080/02634937.2021.1923458
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koulae, E. (2005). The contexts of Islamic fundamentalism in Central Asia. Journal of Faculty of Law and Political Sciences of Tehran University, (67), 201–224. [Persian]
   Google Scholar
• Kucera, J. (2016, September 6). Kyrgyz authorities describe multinational, Uighur-led plot against Chinese Embassy. EurasiaNet. Retrieved from http://www.eurasianet.org/node/80426.
   Google Scholar
• Kurmashev, A.,Akhmedyanova, D.,Zholdasbekova, A., &Sadri, H. (2018). Kazakhstan’s middle power response to terrorism. Insight Turkey, 20(4), 111–128. https://doi.org/10.25253/99.2018204.12
   Google Scholar
• Kubicek, P. (2019). Islamist political orientations among Central Asian youth. Europe-Asia Studies, 71(5), 840–855. https://doi.org/10.1080/09668136.2019.1610360
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuszewska, A., & Khan, K. H. (2020). The significance of India’s (re) connectivity strategy in Central Asia: An introduction. In K. H. Khan (Ed.), The strategy of (re) connectivity: Revisiting India’s multifaceted relations with Central Asia. KW Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Lang, J. (2013, November). The Radical Islamic militants of Central Asia, OSW Report. https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/173346/report_the-radical-islamic-militants.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Laruelle, M. (2015). The three discursive paradigms of state identity in Kazakhstan: Kazakhness, Kazakhstanness, and transnationalism. In M. Y. Omelicheva (Ed.) Nationalism and identity construction in Central Asia: Dimensions, dynamics, and directions (pp. 1–20). Lexington Books.
   Google Scholar
• Lenz-Raymann, K. (2014). Securitization of Islam: A vicious circle: Counter-terrorism and freedom of religion in Central Asia. transcript Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Lozovsky, L. (2018). The Death of Tajikistan’s Islamic Renaissance. https://www.occrp.org/en/moneybymarriage/the-death-of-tajikistans-islamic-renaissance
   Google Scholar
• Manne, R. (2017). The mind of the Islamic State: ISIS and the ideology of the caliphate. Prometheus.
   Google Scholar
• Mustafayeva, A., Paltore, Y., Pernekulova, M., & Meirim, I. (2023). Islamic higher education as a part of Kazakhs’ cultural revival. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, 10(3), 103–127. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48736796. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/1515
   Google Scholar
• Nasritdinov, E., Urmanbetova, Z., Murzakhalilov, K., & Myrzabaev, M. (2019). Vulnerability and resilience of young people in Kyrgyzstan to radicalization, violence and extremism: Analysis across five domains. CAP Paper, (213), 21.
   Google Scholar
• Naumkin, V. V. (2003). Militant Islam in Central Asia: The case of the Islamic movement of Uzbekistan. https://www.econbiz.de/Record/militant-islam-in-central-asia-the-case-of-the-islamic-movement-of-uzbekistan-naumkin-vitaly/10010538687
   Google Scholar
• Omelicheva, M. Y. (2010). The ethnic dimension of religious extremism and terrorism in Central Asia. International Political Science Review, 31(2), 167–186. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512110364738
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pannier, B. (2015). The Demise Of Tajikistan’s Islamic Party. Radio Free Europe. https://www.rferl.org/a/qishloq-ovozi-demise-of-tajik-islamic-party/27227509.html
   Google Scholar
• Peimani, H. (2002). Failed transition, bleak future?: War and instability in Central Asia and the Caucasus. Greenwood Publishing Group.
   Google Scholar
• Peshkova, S. (2015). Chaos, violence, and dynasty: politics and Islam in Central Asia. Central Asian Survey, 34(4), 564–566.
   Google Scholar
• Pew Research Center. (2013). The World’s Muslims: Religion, politics and society. Pew Research Center.
   Google Scholar
• Peyrouse, S. (2015). Turkmenistan: Strategies of power, dilemmas of development. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Pickett, J. (2020). Polymaths of Islam: Power and networks of knowledge in Central Asia. Cornell University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rashid, A. (1994). The resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism. Zed Books.
   Google Scholar
• Rashid, A. (2002). Jihad: The Rise of Militant Islam in Central Asia. Yale University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/25574425
   Google Scholar
• Ro’i, Y. (Ed.). (1995). Muslim Eurasia: Conflicting legacies. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003397021
   Google Scholar
• Report on International Religious Freedom: Uzbekistan (2022). US Department of State. https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/uzbekistan/
   Google Scholar
• Rotar, I. (2003). The Islamic movement of Uzbekistan: A resurgent IMU? The Jamestown Foundation Terrorism Monitor, 1(8).
   Google Scholar
• Saida, N. (2023). Measuring the power and legitimacy of Uzbekistan’s Islamic leaders. The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2023/09/measuring-the-power-and-legitimacy-of-uzbekistans-islamic-leaders/
   Google Scholar
• Sanderson, T. M., Kimmage, D., & Gordon, D. A. (2010). From the Ferghana Valley to South Waziristan: The evolving threat of Central Asian Jihadists. CSIS Transnational Threats, Project.
   Google Scholar
• Sharipova, D., & Burkhanov, A. (2021). Nation-building in Central Asia: Policy and discourse. In Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Central Asia (pp. 101–114. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Soliev, N. (2021). Tracing the fate of Central Asian fighters in Syria. Perspectives on Terrorism, 15(4), 125–140.
   Google Scholar
• South China Morning Post. (2022). Kazakhstan blames foreign-trained Islamic radicals for unrest as nearly 8,000 people detained. South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/news/world/russia-central-asia/article/3162811/kazakhstan-blames-foreign-trained-islamic-radicals.
   Google Scholar
• Speckhard, A., & Ellenberg, M. D. (2020). ISIS in their own words. Journal of Strategic Security, 13(1), 82–127. https://doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.13.1.1791
   Google Scholar
• Starr, S. F. (2013). Lost enlightenment: Central Asia’s golden age from the Arab conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan, C. J. (2015). Civil society in chains: The dynamics of sociopolitical relations in Turkmenistan. In Civil society and politics in Central Asia (pp. 249–275). University Press of Kentucky.
   Google Scholar
• Tasar, E. (2017). Soviet and Muslim: The institutionalization of Islam in Central Asia, 1943-1991. OUP.
   Google Scholar
• Thibault, H. (2018). Transforming Tajikistan: State-building and Islam in Post-Soviet. IB Tauris.
   Google Scholar
• United States State Department. (2021). Country Reports on Terrorism 2021: Kazakhstan. https://www.state.gov/reports/country-reports-on-terrorism-2021/kazakhstan/
   Google Scholar
• United States State Department. (2006). International religious freedom report 2006. https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/72290.htm.
   Google Scholar
• Utomo, A. B. (2017). Islamic consolidation in Kazakhstan: Success story and challenges of the future. SHAHIH: Journal of Islamicate Multidisciplinary, 2(2). https://doi.org/10.22515/shahih.v2i2.968
   Google Scholar
• Yemelianova, G. M. (2014). Islam, national identity and politics in contemporary Kazakhstan. Asian Ethnicity, 15(3), 286–301. https://doi.org/10.1080/14631369.2013.847643
   Google Scholar