Microbial Modulation of Coagulation Disorders in Venous Thromboembolism

References

• Wolberg AS, Rosendaal FR, Weitz JI, et al. Venous thrombosis. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2015;1(1):15006. doi:10.1038/nrdp.2015.627189130
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Suzuki N, Yoshioka N, Ohara T, et al. Risk factors for perioperative venous thromboembolism: a retrospective study in Japanese women with gynecologic diseases. Thromb J. 2010;8(1):17. doi:10.1186/1477-9560-8-1721054901
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liem TK, Huynh TM, Moseley SE, et al. Symptomatic perioperative venous thromboembolism is a frequent complication in patients with a history of deep vein thrombosis. J Vasc Surg. 2010;52(3):651–657. doi:10.1016/j.jvs.2010.04.02920558025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayr FB, Yende S, Angus DC. Epidemiology of severe sepsis. Virulence. 2014;5(1):4–11. doi:10.4161/viru.2737224335434
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beristain-Covarrubias N, Perez-Toledo M, Thomas MR, Henderson IR, Watson SP, Cunningham AF. Understanding infection-induced thrombosis: lessons learned from animal models. Front Immunol. 2019;10. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.02569
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munford RS. Endotoxemia-menace, marker, or mistake? J Leukoc Biol. 2016;100(4):687–698. doi:10.1189/jlb.3RU0316-151R27418356
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pretorius E, Mbotwe S, Bester J, Robinson CJ, Kell DB. Acute induction of anomalous and amyloidogenic blood clotting by molecular amplification of highly substoichiometric levels of bacterial lipopolysaccharide. J R Soc Interface. 2016;13(122):20160539. doi:10.1098/rsif.2016.053927605168
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patrakka O, Pienimäki J, Tuomisto S, et al. Oral bacterial signatures in cerebral thrombi of patients with acute ischemic stroke treated with thrombectomy. J Am Heart Assoc. 2019;8(11). doi:10.1161/JAHA.119.012330
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamzeh-Cognasse H, Damien P, Chabert A, Pozzetto B, Cognasse F, Garraud O. Platelets and infections - Complex interactions with bacteria. Front Immunol. 2015;6:1–18. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2015.0008225657648
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamowicz B, Mikstacki A, Urbanek T, Zawilska K. Mechanical methods of venous thromboembolism prevention – from the guidelines to the clinical practice. Pol Arch Intern Med. 2019. doi:10.20452/pamw.4482
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cohen A, Agnelli G, Anderson F, et al. Venous thromboembolism (VTE) in Europe. Thromb Haemost. 2007;98(10):756–764. doi:10.1160/TH07-03-021217938798
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Adelborg K, Sundbøll J, Sørensen HT. Arterial cardiovascular events and mortality following venous thromboembolism. Ann Transl Med. 2015;3(9):117. doi:10.3978/j.issn.2305-5839.2015.04.1126207245
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mazzolai L, Aboyans V, Ageno W, et al. Diagnosis and management of acute deep vein thrombosis: a joint consensus document from the European Society of Cardiology working groups of aorta and peripheral vascular diseases and pulmonary circulation and right ventricular function. Eur Heart J. 2018;39(47):4208–4218. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehx00328329262
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raskob GE, Angchaisuksiri P, Blanco AN, et al. Thrombosis: a major contributor to global disease burden: ISTH steering committee for world thrombosis day the members of the ISTH steering committee for World Thrombosis Day. Thromb Res. 2014;134(5):931–938. doi:10.1016/j.thromres.2014.08.01425312343
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Youn YJ, Lee J. Chronic venous insufficiency and varicose veins of the lower extremities. Korean J Intern Med. 2019;34(2):269–283. doi:10.3904/kjim.2018.23030360023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lejay A, Koncar I, Diener H, Vega de Ceniga M, Chakfé N. Post-operative infection of prosthetic materials or stents involving the supra-aortic trunks: a comprehensive review. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2018;56(6):885–900. doi:10.1016/j.ejvs.2018.07.01630121172
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Branchford BR, Carpenter SL. The role of inflammation in venous thromboembolism. Front Pediatr. 2018;6. doi:10.3389/fped.2018.00142
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Integrative HM. The integrative human microbiome project: dynamic analysis of microbiome-host omics profiles during periods of human health and disease. Cell Host Microbe. 2014;16(3):276–289. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2014.08.01425211071
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sender R, Fuchs S, Milo R. Revised estimates for the number of human and bacteria cells in the body. PLoS Biol. 2016;14(8):e1002533. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.100253327541692
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lloyd-Price J, Abu-Ali G, Huttenhower C. The healthy human microbiome. Genome Med. 2016;8(1):51. doi:10.1186/s13073-016-0307-y27122046
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen C, Round JL. Defining dysbiosis and its influence on host immunity and disease. Cell Microbiol. 2014;16(7):1024–1033. doi:10.1111/cmi.1230824798552
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmad AF, Dwivedi G, O’Gara F, Caparros-Martin J, Ward NC. The gut microbiome and cardiovascular disease: current knowledge and clinical potential. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2019;317(5):H923–H938. doi:10.1152/ajpheart.00376.201931469291
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krüger W, Vielreicher S, Kapitan M, Jacobsen ID, Niemiec MJ. Fungal-bacterial interactions in health and disease. Pathogens. 2019;8(2):70. doi:10.3390/pathogens8020070
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Païssé S, Valle C, Servant F, et al. Comprehensive description of blood microbiome from healthy donors assessed by 16S targeted metagenomic sequencing. Transfusion. 2016;56(5):1138–1147. doi:10.1111/trf.1347726865079
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li Q, Wang C, Tang C, Zhao X, He Q, Li J. Identification and characterization of blood and neutrophil-associated microbiomes in patients with severe acute pancreatitis using next-generation sequencing. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2018;8. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2018.00005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castillo DJ, Rifkin RF, Cowan DA, Potgieter M. The healthy human blood microbiome: fact or fiction? Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2019;9. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2019.00148
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qiu J, Zhou H, Jing Y, Dong C. Association between blood microbiome and type 2 diabetes mellitus: a nested case‐control study. J Clin Lab Anal. 2019;33(4):e22842. doi:10.1002/jcla.2284230714640
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Potgieter M, Bester J, Kell DB, Pretorius E. The dormant blood microbiome in chronic, inflammatory diseases. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2015;39(4):567–591. doi:10.1093/femsre/fuv01325940667
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nemati R, Dietz C, Anstadt EJ, et al. Deposition and hydrolysis of serine dipeptide lipids of Bacteroidetes bacteria in human arteries: relationship to atherosclerosis. J Lipid Res. 2017;58(10):1999–2007. doi:10.1194/jlr.m07779228814639
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rangé H, Labreuche J, Louedec L, et al. Periodontal bacteria in human carotid atherothrombosis as a potential trigger for neutrophil activation. Atherosclerosis. 2014;236(2):448–455. doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.07.03425173070
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiouptsi K, Jäckel S, Pontarollo G, et al. The microbiota promotes arterial thrombosis in low-density lipoprotein receptor-deficient mice. mBio. 2019;10(5):e02298–19. doi:10.1128/mBio.02298-1931641089
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samarasekara K, Munasinghe J. Dengue shock syndrome complicated with acute liver failure and kidney injury, infective endocarditis, and deep vein thrombosis: a case report. J Med Case Rep. 2018;12(1):321. doi:10.1186/s13256-018-1862-130373645
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dolapsakis C, Kranidioti E, Katsila S, Samarkos M. Cavernous sinus thrombosis due to ipsilateral sphenoid sinusitis. BMJ Case Rep. 2019;12(1):e227302. doi:10.1136/bcr-2018-227302
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Periayah MH, Halim AS, Mat Saad AZ. Mechanism action of platelets and crucial blood coagulation pathways in hemostasis. Int J Hematol Oncol Stem Cell Res. 2017;11(4):319–327.29340130
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smith SA, Travers RJ, Morrissey JH. How it all starts: initiation of the clotting cascade. Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol. 2015;50(4):326–336. doi:10.3109/10409238.2015.105055026018600
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berends ETM, Kuipers A, Ravesloot MM, Urbanus RT, Rooijakkers SHM. Bacteria under stress by complement and coagulation. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2014;38(6):1146–1171. doi:10.1111/1574-6976.1208025065463
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frick I-M, Björck L, Herwald H. The dual role of the contact system in bacterial infectious disease. Thromb Haemost. 2007;98(09):497–502. doi:10.1160/TH07-01-005117849037
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nickel KF, Renné T. Crosstalk of the plasma contact system with bacteria. Thromb Res. 2012;130:S78–S83. doi:10.1016/j.thromres.2012.08.28423026673
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antoniak S. The coagulation system in host defense. Res Pract Thromb Haemost. 2018;2(3):549–557. doi:10.1002/rth2.1210930046760
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhattacharya S, Ploplis VA, Castellino FJ. Bacterial plasminogen receptors utilize host plasminogen system for effective invasion and dissemination. J Biomed Biotechnol. 2012;2012:1–19. doi:10.1155/2012/48209621836813
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Adivitiya A, Khasa YP. The evolution of recombinant thrombolytics: current status and future directions. Bioengineered. 2017;8(4):331–358. doi:10.1080/21655979.2016.122971827696935
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delano MJ, Ward PA. The immune system’s role in sepsis progression, resolution, and long-term outcome. Immunol Rev. 2016;274(1):330–353. doi:10.1111/imr.1249927782333
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peetermans M, Vanassche T, Liesenborghs L, Lijnen RH, Verhamme P. Bacterial pathogens activate plasminogen to breach tissue barriers and escape from innate immunity. Crit Rev Microbiol. 2016;42(6):866–882. doi:10.3109/1040841X.2015.108021426485450
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rittirsch D, Flierl MA, Ward PA. Harmful molecular mechanisms in sepsis. Nat Rev Immunol. 2008;8(10):776–787. doi:10.1038/nri240218802444
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duran-Bedolla J, de Oca-sandoval MA, Saldaña-Navor V, Villalobos-Silva JA, Rodriguez MC, Rivas-Arancibia S. Sepsis, mitochondrial failure and multiple organ dysfunction. Clin Invest Med. 2014;37(2):58. doi:10.25011/cim.v37i2.21087
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paiva CN, Bozza MT. Are reactive oxygen species always detrimental to pathogens? Antioxid Redox Signal. 2014;20(6):1000–1037. doi:10.1089/ars.2013.544723992156
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alberdi P, Cabezas-Cruz A, Prados PE, Rayo MV, Artigas-Jerónimo S, de la Fuente J. The redox metabolic pathways function to limit Anaplasma phagocytophilum infection and multiplication while preserving fitness in tick vector cells. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):13236. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-49766-x31520000
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ivanov AV, Bartosch B, Isaguliants MG. Oxidative stress in infection and consequent disease. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2017;2017:1–3. doi:10.1155/2017/3496043
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ray PD, Huang B-W, Tsuji Y. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) homeostasis and redox regulation in cellular signaling. Cell Signal. 2012;24(5):981–990. doi:10.1016/j.cellsig.2012.01.00822286106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qiao J, Arthur JF, Gardiner EE, Andrews RK, Zeng L, Xu K. Regulation of platelet activation and thrombus formation by reactive oxygen species. Redox Biol. 2018;14:126–130. doi:10.1016/j.redox.2017.08.02128888895
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Violi F, Pignatelli P. Platelet oxidative stress and thrombosis. Thromb Res. 2012;129(3):378–381. doi:10.1016/j.thromres.2011.12.00222209450
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu H, Wu J, Yao J, Wang H, Li S. The role of oxidative stress in decreased acetylcholinesterase activity at the neuromuscular junction of the diaphragm during sepsis. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2017;2017:1–6. doi:10.1155/2017/9718615
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Q-S, Zheng Y-M, Dong L, Ho Y-S, Guo Z, Wang Y-X. Role of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species in hypoxia-dependent increase in intracellular calcium in pulmonary artery myocytes. Free Radic Biol Med. 2007;42(5):642–653. doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2006.12.00817291988
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tafani M, Sansone L, Limana F, et al. The interplay of reactive oxygen species, hypoxia, inflammation, and sirtuins in cancer initiation and progression. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2016;2016:1–18. doi:10.1155/2016/3907147
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang S-L, Wu C, Xiong Z-F, Fang X. Progress on hypoxia-inducible factor-3: its structure, gene regulation and biological function (Review). Mol Med Rep. 2015;12(2):2411–2416. doi:10.3892/mmr.2015.368925936862
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziello JE, Jovin IS, Huang Y. Hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1 regulatory pathway and its potential for therapeutic intervention in malignancy and ischemia. Yale J Biol Med. 2007;80(2):51–60.18160990
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Weidemann A, Johnson RS. Biology of HIF-1α. Cell Death Differ. 2008;15(4):621–627. doi:10.1038/cdd.2008.1218259201
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malone PC. The aetiology of deep venous thrombosis. QJM. 2006;99(9):581–593. doi:10.1093/qjmed/hcl07016905749
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prchal JT. Hypoxia and thrombosis. Blood. 2018;132(4):348–349. doi:10.1182/blood-2018-06-85497630049732
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kempf VAJ, Lebiedziejewski M, Alitalo K, et al. Activation of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 in bacillary angiomatosis. Circulation. 2005;111(8):1054–1062. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000155608.07691.B715723970
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeung J, Li W, Holinstat M. Platelet signaling and disease: targeted therapy for thrombosis and other related diseases. Pharmacol Rev. 2018;70(3):526–548. doi:10.1124/pr.117.01453029925522
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korzonek-Szlacheta I, Zubelewicz-Szkodzińska B, Gąsior M. Płytki krwi — ogniwo łączące zakrzepicę ze stanem zapalnym. Folia Cardiol. 2018;13(4):303–308. doi:10.5603/FC.2018.0068
   Google Scholar
• Xu J, An Q, Yin W, Hu X. Platelet and immunity in transfusion medicine In: Transfusion Medicine and Scientific Developments. InTech; 2017:55. doi:10.5772/intechopen.69135
   Google Scholar
• Kerrigan SW. Platelet interactions with bacteria in: the non-thrombotic role of platelets in health and Disease. InTech; 2015:65. doi10.5772/60531
   Google Scholar
• Kerrigan SW, Cox D. Platelet–bacterial interactions. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2010;67(4):513–523. doi:10.1007/s00018-009-0207-z20091082
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerrigan SW, Douglas I, Wray A, et al. A role for glycoprotein Ib in Streptococcus sanguis–induced platelet aggregation. Blood. 2002;100(2):509–516. doi:10.1182/blood.V100.2.50912091342
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrne MF, Kerrigan SW, Corcoran PA, et al. Helicobacter pylori binds von Willebrand factor and interacts with GPIb to induce platelet aggregation. Gastroenterology. 2003;124(7):1846–1854. doi:10.1016/S0016-5085(03)00397-412806618
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McAdow M, Missiakas DM, Schneewind O. Staphylococcus aureus secretes coagulase and von willebrand factor binding protein to modify the coagulation cascade and establish host infections. J Innate Immun. 2012;4(2):141–148. doi:10.1159/00033344722222316
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crosby HA, Kwiecinski J, Horswill AR. Staphylococcus aureus aggregation and coagulation mechanisms, and their function in host–pathogen interactions In: Advances in Applied Microbiology; 2016:1–41. doi:10.1016/bs.aambs.2016.07.018
   Google Scholar
• Thomer L, Schneewind O, Missiakas D. Pathogenesis of Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infections. Annu Rev Pathol. 2016;11(1):343–364. doi:10.1146/annurev-pathol-012615-04435126925499
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gros A, Ollivier V, Ho-Tin-Noé B. Platelets in inflammation: regulation of leukocyte activities and vascular repair. Front Immunol. 2015;5. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2014.00678
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rose PE, Armour JA, Williams CE, Hill FG. Verotoxin and neuraminidase induced platelet aggregating activity in plasma: their possible role in the pathogenesis of the haemolytic uraemic syndrome. J Clin Pathol. 1985;38(4):438–441. doi:10.1136/jcp.38.4.4382859303
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guessous F, Marcinkiewicz M, Polanowska-Grabowska R, et al. Shiga toxin 2 and lipopolysaccharide induce human microvascular endothelial cells to release chemokines and factors that stimulate platelet function. Infect Immun. 2005;73(12):8306–8316. doi:10.1128/IAI.73.12.8306-8316.200516299328
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Surewaard BGJ, Thanabalasuriar A, Zeng Z, et al. α-Toxin induces platelet aggregation and liver injury during Staphylococcus aureus sepsis. Cell Host Microbe. 2018;24(2):271–284.e3. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2018.06.01730033122
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinod K, Wagner DD. Thrombosis: tangled up in NETs. Blood. 2014;123(18):2768–2776. doi:10.1182/blood-2013-10-46364624366358
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Konig MF, Andrade F. A critical reappraisal of neutrophil extracellular traps and NETosis mimics based on differential requirements for protein citrullination. Front Immunol. 2016;7. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2016.00461
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazzaretto B, Fadeel B. Intra- and extracellular degradation of neutrophil extracellular traps by macrophages and dendritic cells. J Immunol. 2019;203(8):2276–2290. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.180015931519860
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scheithauer TPM, Dallinga-Thie GM, de Vos WM, Nieuwdorp M, van Raalte DH. Causality of small and large intestinal microbiota in weight regulation and insulin resistance. Mol Metab. 2016;5(9):759–770. doi:10.1016/j.molmet.2016.06.00227617199
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mondot S, Lepage P. The human gut microbiome and its dysfunctions through the meta-omics prism. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2016;1372(1):9–19. doi:10.1111/nyas.1303326945826
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vinchi F. Thrombosis prevention. Hemasphere. 2019;3(1):e165. doi:10.1097/HS9.000000000000016531723804
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shivaji S. We are not alone: a case for the human microbiome in extra intestinal diseases. Gut Pathog. 2017;9(1):13. doi:10.1186/s13099-017-0163-328286571
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Khan AA, Shrivastava A, Khurshid M. Normal to cancer microbiome transformation and its implication in cancer diagnosis. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer. 2012;1826(2):331–337. doi:10.1016/j.bbcan.2012.05.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vuong HE, Hsiao EY. Emerging roles for the gut microbiome in autism spectrum disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2017;81(5):411–423. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.08.02427773355
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singer M, Deutschman CS, Seymour CW, et al. The third international consensus definitions for sepsis and septic shock (Sepsis-3). JAMA. 2016;315(8):801. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.028726903338
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng X, Zhang L, Xie NC, Xu HL, Lian YJ. Association between small-intestinal bacterial overgrowth and deep vein thrombosis in patients with spinal cord injuries. J Thromb Haemost. 2017;15(2):304–311. doi:10.1111/jth.1358327930853
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wigg AJ. The role of small intestinal bacterial overgrowth, intestinal permeability, endotoxaemia, and tumour necrosis factor alpha in the pathogenesis of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Gut. 2001;48(2):206–211. doi:10.1136/gut.48.2.20611156641
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shanab AA, Scully P, Crosbie O, et al. Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: association with toll-like receptor 4 expression and plasma levels of interleukin 8. Dig Dis Sci. 2011;56(5):1524–1534. doi:10.1007/s10620-010-1447-321046243
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Z, Zhao Y. Gut microbiota derived metabolites in cardiovascular health and disease. Protein Cell. 2018;9(5):416–431. doi:10.1007/s13238-018-0549-029725935
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang K, Du C, Wang X, et al. Indoxyl sulfate induces platelet hyperactivity and contributes to chronic kidney disease–associated thrombosis in mice. Blood. 2017;129(19):2667–2679. doi:10.1182/blood-2016-10-74406028264799
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown JM, Hazen SL. Microbial modulation of cardiovascular disease. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2018;16(3):171–181. doi:10.1038/nrmicro.2017.14929307889
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yancey PH. Organic osmolytes as compatible, metabolic and counteracting cytoprotectants in high osmolarity and other stresses. J Exp Biol. 2005;208(15):2819–2830. doi:10.1242/jeb.0173016043587
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Velasquez M, Ramezani A, Manal A, Raj D. Trimethylamine N-oxide: the good, the bad and the unknown. Toxins. 2016;8(11):326. doi:10.3390/toxins8110326
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haghikia A, Li XS, Liman TG, et al. Gut microbiota–dependent trimethylamine N -oxide predicts risk of cardiovascular events in patients with stroke and is related to proinflammatory monocytes. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2018;38(9):2225–2235. doi:10.1161/ATVBAHA.118.31102329976769
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qi J, You T, Li J, et al. Circulating trimethylamine N-oxide and the risk of cardiovascular diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 11 prospective cohort studies. J Cell Mol Med. 2018;22(1):185–194. doi:10.1111/jcmm.1330728782886
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roncal C, Martínez-Aguilar E, Orbe J, et al. Trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) predicts cardiovascular mortality in peripheral artery disease. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):15580. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-52082-z31666590
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhu W, Gregory JC, Org E, et al. Gut microbial metabolite TMAO enhances platelet hyperreactivity and thrombosis risk. Cell. 2016;165(1):111–124. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2016.02.01126972052
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Z, Roberts AB, Buffa JA, et al. Non-lethal inhibition of gut microbial trimethylamine production for the treatment of atherosclerosis. Cell. 2015;163(7):1585–1595. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2015.11.05526687352
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajilić-Stojanović M, de Vos WM. The first 1000 cultured species of the human gastrointestinal microbiota. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2014. doi:10.1111/1574-6976.12075
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang WHW, Wang Z, Levison BS, et al. Intestinal microbial metabolism of phosphatidylcholine and cardiovascular risk. N Engl J Med. 2013;368(17):1575–1584. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa110940023614584
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koeth RA, Wang Z, Levison BS, et al. Intestinal microbiota metabolism of l-carnitine, a nutrient in red meat, promotes atherosclerosis. Nat Med. 2013;19(5):576–585. doi:10.1038/nm.314523563705
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hung S, Kuo K, Wu C, Tarng D-C. Indoxyl sulfate: a novel cardiovascular risk factor in chronic kidney disease. J Am Heart Assoc. 2017;6(2):102–110. doi:10.1161/JAHA.116.005022
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karbowska M, Kaminski TW, Znorko B, et al. Indoxyl sulfate promotes arterial thrombosis in rat model via increased levels of complex TF/VII, PAI-1, platelet activation as well as decreased contents of SIRT1 and SIRT3. Front Physiol. 2018;9. doi:10.3389/fphys.2018.01623
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalager-Pedersen M, Søgaard M, Schønheyder HC, Nielsen H, Thomsen RW. Risk for myocardial infarction and stroke after community-acquired bacteremia. Circulation. 2014;129(13):1387–1396. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.00669924523433
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Putot A, Chague F, Manckoundia P, Cottin Y, Zeller M. Post-infectious myocardial infarction: new insights for improved screening. J Clin Med. 2019;8(6):827. doi:10.3390/jcm8060827
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fugate JE, Lyons JL, Thakur KT, Smith BR, Hedley-Whyte ET, Mateen FJ. Infectious causes of stroke. Lancet Infect Dis. 2014;14(9):869–880. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(14)70755-824881525
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roquer J, Cuadrado-Godia E, Giralt-Steinthauer E, et al. Previous infection and stroke: a prospective study. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2012;33(4):310–315. doi:10.1159/00033530622343923
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tralhão A, Póvoa P. Cardiovascular events after community-acquired pneumonia: a global perspective with systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. J Clin Med. 2020;9(2):414. doi:10.3390/jcm9020414
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beynon RP, Bahl VK, Prendergast BD. Infective endocarditis. BMJ. 2006;333(7563):334–339. doi:10.1136/bmj.333.7563.33416902214
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Musher DM, Abers MS, Corrales-Medina VF. Acute infection and myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2019;380(2):171–176. doi:10.1056/NEJMra180813730625066
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kastrup CJ, Boedicker JQ, Pomerantsev AP, et al. Spatial localization of bacteria controls coagulation of human blood by ‘quorum acting‘. Nat Chem Biol. 2008;4(12):742–750. doi:10.1038/nchembio.12419031531
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crary SE, Buchanan GR, Drake CE, Journeycake JM. Venous thrombosis and thromboembolism in children with osteomyelitis. J Pediatr. 2006;149(4):537–541. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2006.06.06717011328
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez BE, Teruya J, Mahoney DH, et al. Venous thrombosis associated with staphylococcal osteomyelitis in children. Pediatrics. 2006;117(5):1673–1679. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-200916651323
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee C-Y, Lee Y-S, Tsao P-C, Jeng M-J, Soong W-J. Musculoskeletal sepsis associated with deep vein thrombosis in a child. Pediatr Neonatol. 2016;57(3):244–247. doi:10.1016/j.pedneo.2013.09.00424279976
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mantadakis E, Plessa E, Vouloumanou EK, Michailidis L, Chatzimichael A, Falagas ME. Deep venous thrombosis in children with musculoskeletal infections: the clinical evidence. Int J Infect Dis. 2012;16(4):e236–e243. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2011.12.01222361432
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arduini A, Zammit VA, Bonomini M. Identification of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO)-producer phenotype is interesting, but is it helpful? Gut. 2018;2019. doi:10.1136/gutjnl-2018-318000
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vail GM, Xie YJ, Haney DJ, Barnes CJ. Biomarkers of thrombosis, fibrinolysis, and inflammation in patients with severe sepsis due to community-acquired pneumonia with and without Streptococcus pneumoniae. Infection. 2009;37(4):358–364. doi:10.1007/s15010-008-8128-619169631
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Violi F, Cangemi R, Calvieri C. Pneumonia, thrombosis and vascular disease. J Thromb Haemost. 2014;12(9):1391–1400. doi:10.1111/jth.1264624954194
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansson D, Shannon O, Rasmussen M. Platelet and neutrophil responses to Gram positive pathogens in patients with bacteremic infection. PLoS One. 2011;6(11):e26928. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.002692822140434
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andes DR, Urban AW, Acher CW, Maki DG. Septic thrombosis of the basilic, axillary, and subclavian veins caused by a peripherally inserted central venous catheter. Am J Med. 1998;105(5):446–450. doi:10.1016/S0002-9343(98)00287-39831430
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sato A, Nakamura I, Fujita H, et al. Peripheral venous catheter-related bloodstream infection is associated with severe complications and potential death: a retrospective observational study. BMC Infect Dis. 2017;17(1):434. doi:10.1186/s12879-017-2536-028623882
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Denis Spelman, MBBS, FRACP, FRCPA M. Suppurative (septic) thrombophlebitis. Literature review current through. 2018 Available from: https://www.uptodate.com/contents/suppurative-septic-thrombophlebitis.
   Google Scholar
• Cox ER, Amoroso A, Gilliam BL. Pannus attack: septic thrombophlebitis. Am J Med. 2012;125(12):1175–1177. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2012.08.00223062405
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinberg G. Upper-extremity suppurative thrombophlebitis and septic pulmonary emboli. JAMA. 1978;240(14):1519. doi:10.1001/jama.1978.03290140061029682360
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xin Koh Y, Kian Chng J, Guan Tan S. A rare case of septic deep vein thrombosis in the inferior vena cava and the left iliac vein in an intravenous drug abuser. Ann Vasc Dis. 2012;5(3):389–392. doi:10.3400/avd.cr.12.0003623555542
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cornford CS, Mason JM, Inns F. Deep vein thromboses in users of opioid drugs: incidence, prevalence, and risk factors. Br J Gen Pract. 2011;61(593):e781–e786. doi:10.3399/bjgp11X61311522137414
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwiatkowska W, Knysz B, Gąsiorowski J, Witkiewicz W. Deep vein thrombosis of the lower limbs in intravenous drug users. Postepy Higieny I Medycyny Doswiadczalnej. 2015;69:510–520. doi:10.5604/17322693.115021525983290
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antonova N, Zvetkova E, Ivanov I, Savov Y. Hemorheological changes and characteristic parameters derived from whole blood viscometry in chronic heroin addicts. Clin Hemorheol Microcirc. 2008;39(1–4):53–61. doi:10.3233/CH-2008-106818503110
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huisjes R, Bogdanova A, van Solinge WW, Schiffelers RM, Kaestner L, van Wijk R. Squeezing for life – properties of red blood cell deformability. Front Physiol. 2018;9. doi:10.3389/fphys.2018.00656
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galante A, DeLuca A, Pietroiusti A, et al. Effects of opiates on blood rheology. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 1994;32(4):411–417. doi:10.3109/155636594090110428057400
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar