Bacterial–viral load and the immune response in stable and exacerbated COPD: significance and therapeutic prospects

References

• Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD): global strategy for the diagnosis, management and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseNHLBI/WHO workshop report NIH Publication No 2701A. Last update 2015 Available from: http://www.goldcopd.com
   Google Scholar
• Di StefanoACaramoriGRicciardoloFLMCapelliAAdcockIMDonnerCFCellular and molecular mechanisms in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: an overviewClin Exp Allergy2004341156116715298554
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PapiABellettatoCMBraccioniFInfections and airway inflammation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease severe exacerbationsAm J Respir Crit Care Med20061731114112116484677
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BafadhelMMcKennaSTerrySAcute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease identification of biologic clusters and their biomarkersAm J Respir Crit Care Med201118466267121680942
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BhowmikASeemugalTASapsfordRJWedzichaJARelation of sputum inflammatory markers to symptoms and lung function changes in COPD exacerbationsThorax20005511412010639527
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SaettaMDi StefanoAMaestrelliPAirway eosinophilia in chronic bronchitis during exacerbationsAm J Respir Crit Care Med1994150164616527952628
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BrusselleGJoosGBrackeGNew insights into the immunology of chronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseLancet20113781015102621907865
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SethiSMurphyTInfection in the pathogenesis and course of chronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseN Engl J Med20083592355236519038881
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SuauABonnetRSutrenMDirect analysis of genes encoding 16s rRNA from complex communities reveals many novel molecular species within the human gutAppl Environ Microbiol1999654799480710543789
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HayashiHSakamotoMBennoYPhylogenetic analysis of the human gut microbiota using 16s rDNA clone libraries and strictly anaerobic culture-based methodsMicrobiol Immunol20024653554812363017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SibleyCDGrinwisMEFieldTRCulture enriched molecular profiling of the cystic fibrosis airway microbiomePLoS One20116e2270221829484
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CharlsonESBittingerKHaasARTopographical continuity of bacterial populations in the healthy human respiratory tractAm J Respir Crit Care Med201118495796321680950
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cabrera-RubioRGarcia-NunezMSetoLMicrobiome diversity in the bronchial tracts of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseJ Clin Microbiol2012503562356822915614
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RosellAMonsòESolerNMicrobiologic determinants of exacerbations in chronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseArch Intern Med200516589189715851640
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PatelISSeemungalTAWilksMLloyd-OwenSJDonaldsonGCWedzichaJARelationship between bacterial colonization and the frequency, character and severity of COPD exacerbationsThorax20025775976412200518
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MiravitllesMEspinosaCFernandez-LasoEMartosJEMaldonadoJAGallegoMRelationship between bacterial flora in sputum and functional impairment in patients with acute exacerbations of COPDChest1999116404610424501
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HillATCampbellEJHillSLBayleyDLStockleyRAAssociation between airway bacterial load and markers of airway inflammation in patients with stable chronic bronchitisJ Clin Virol2000109188195
   Google Scholar
• GarchaDSThurstonSJPatelARCChanges in prevalence and load of airway bacteria using quantitative PCR in stable and exacerbated COPDThorax2012671075108022863758
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BarkerBLHaldarKPatelHAssociation between pathogens detected using quantitative polymerase chain reaction with airway inflammation in COPD at stable state and exacerbationsChest2015147465525103335
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SinghRMackayAJPatelAInflammatory thresholds and the species-specific effects of colonising bacteria in stable chronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseRespir Res20141511425218165
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erb-DownwardJRThompsonDLHanMKAnalysis of the lung microbiome in the “healthy” smoker and in COPDPLoS One20116e1638421364979
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SethiSEvansNGrantBJMurphyTFNew strains of bacteria and exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseN Engl J Med200234746547112181400
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SzeMADimitriuPAHayashiSThe lung tissue microbiome in chronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseAm J Respir Crit Care Med20121851073108022427533
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PragmanAAKimHBReillyCSWendtCIsaacsonREThe lung microbiome in moderate and severe chronic obstructive pulmonary diseasePLoS One20127e4730523071781
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WuDHouCLiYAnalysis of the bacterial community in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease sputum samples by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and real-time PCRBMC Pulm Med20141417925403149
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia-NuñezMMillaresLPomaresXSeverity-related changes of bronchial microbiome in chronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseJ Clin Microbiol2014524217422325253795
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SzeMADimitriuPASuzukiMThe host response to the lung microbiome in chronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseAm J Respir Crit Care Med201519243844525945594
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HuangYJKimECoxMJA persistent and diverse airway microbiota present during chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbationsOMICS20101495920141328
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MillaresLFerrariRGallegoMBronchial microbiome of severe COPD patients colonised by Pseudomonas aeruginosaEur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis2014331101111124449346
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HuangYJSethiSMurphyTNariyaSBousheyHALynchSVAirway microbiome dynamics in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseJ Clin Microbiol2014522813282324850358
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MackayAJDonaldsonGCPatelARSinghRKowlessarBWedzichaJADetection and severity grading of COPD exacerbations using the exacerbations of chronic pulmonary disease tool (EXACT)Eur Respir J201443373574423988767
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TanWCXiangXQiuDNgPTLamSFHegeleRGEpidemiology of respiratory viruses in patients hospitalized with near-fatal asthma, acute exacerbations of asthma, or chronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseAm J Med200311527227712967691
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WedzichaJARole of viruses in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseProc Am Thor Soc20041115120
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• SinghMLeeSHPorterPHuman rhinovirus 2A induces TH1 and TH2 immunity in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseJ Allergy Clin Immunol20121251369137820430426
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UtokaparchSSzeMAGosselinkJVRespiratory viral detection and small airway inflammation in lung tissue of patients with stable, mild COPDCOPD20122197203
   Google Scholar
• MolyneauxPMalliaPCoxMJOutgrowth of the bacterial airway microbiome after rhinovirus exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseAm J Respir Crit Care Med20131881224123123992479
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MalliaPFootittJSoteroRRhinovirus infection induces degradation of antimicrobial peptides and secondary bacterial infection in chronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseAm J Respir Crit Care Med20121861117112423024024
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GreenbergSBAllenMWilsonJAtmarRLRespiratory viral infections in adults with and without chronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseAm J Respir Crit Care Med200016216717310903237
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SmithCBKannerREGoldenCAKlauberMRRenzettiADEffect of viral infections on pulmonary function in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary diseasesJ Infect Dis19801412712806767794
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WilkinsonTMHurstJRPereraWRWilksMDonaldsonGCWedzichaJAEffect of interactions between lower airway bacterial and rhinoviral infection in exacerbations of COPDChest200612931732416478847
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MorensDMTaubenbergerJKFauciASPredominant role of bacterial pneumonia as a cause of death in pandemic influenza: implications for pandemic influenza preparednessJ Infect Dis200819896297018710327
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BautistaEChotpitayasunondhTGaoZClinical aspects of pandemic 2009 influenza A (H1N1) virus infectionN Engl J Med20103621708171920445182
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)Bacterial coinfections in lung tissue specimens from fatal cases of 2009 pandemic influenza A – United States, May–August 2009MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep2009581071107419798021
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• BallingerMNStandifordTJPostinfluenza bacterial pneumonia: host defenses gone awayJ Interferon Cytokine Res20103064365220726789
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JamiesonAMYuSAnnicelliCHMedzhitovRInfluenza virus-induced glucocorticoids compromise innate host defense against a secondary bacterial infectionCell Host Microbe2010710311420159617
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PlotkowskiMCPuchelleEBeckGJacquotJHannounCAdherence of type I Streptococcus pneumoniae to tracheal epithelium of mice infected with influenza A/PR8 virusAm Rev Respir Dis1986134104010443777666
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DidierlaurentAGouldingJPatelSSustained desensitization to bacterial Toll-like receptor ligands after resolution of respiratory influenza infectionJ Exp Med200820532332918227219
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SunKMetzgerDWInhibition of pulmonary antibacterial defense by interferon-γ during recovery from influenza infectionNature Med20081455856418438414
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GouldingJGodleeAVekariaSLowering the threshold of lung innate immune cell activation alters susceptibility to secondary bacterial superinfectionJ Infect Dis20112041086109421881124
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ManicassamyBManicassamySBelicha-VillanuevaAPisanelliGPulendranBGarcía-SastreAAnalysis of in vivo dynamics of influenza virus infection in mice using a GFP reporter virusProc Natl Acad Sci U S A2010107115311153620534532
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ShahangianAChowEKTianXType I IFNs mediate development of post influenza bacterial pneumonia in miceJ Clin Invest20091191910192019487810
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GuoHKumarPMoranTMGarcia-SastreAZhouYMalarkannanSThe functional impairment of natural killer cells during influenza virus infectionImmunol Cell Biol20098757958919721456
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SmallCLShalerCRMcCormickSInfluenza infection leads to increased susceptibility to subsequent bacterial superinfection by impairing NK cell responses in the lungJ Immunol20101842048205620083661
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SunJMadanRKarpCLBracialeTJEffector T cells control lung inflammation during acute influenza virus infection by producing IL-10Nat Med20091527728419234462
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKinstryKKStruttTMBuckAIL-10 deficiency unleashes an influenza-specific Th17 response and enhances survival against high-dose challengeJ Immunol20091827353736319494257
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der SluijsKFvan EldenLJNijhuisMIL-10 is an important mediator of the enhanced susceptibility to pneumococcal pneumonia after influenza infectionJ Immunol20041727603760915187140
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KudvaASchellerEVRobinsonKMInfluenza A inhibits Th17-mediated host defense against bacterial pneumonia in miceJ Immunol20111861666167421178015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PereraWRHurstJRWilkinsonTMAInflammatory changes, recovery and recurrence at COPD exacerbationEur Respir J20072952753417107990
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SegalLRomWWeidenMLung microbiome for clinicians. New discoveries about bugs in healthy and diseased lungsAnn Am Thoracic Soc201411108116
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• LozuponeCCota-GomezAPalmerBWidespread colonization of the lung by Tropheryma whipplei in HIV infectionAm J Respir Crit Care Med20131871110111723392441
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di StefanoACaramoriGBarczykAInnate immunity but not NLRP3 inflammasome activation correlates with severity of stable COPDThorax20146951652424430176
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar